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ContraGentiles3a.htm
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
<title></title>
<body style="text-align=justify;font-family:" unicode="">
<blockquote>
<center>
<h1>CONTRA GENTILES</h1>
<h2>BOOK THREE: PROVIDENCE<br>
Q. 1-83</h2>
<h3>translated by<br>
Vernon J. Bourke<br>
<br>
CONTENTS</h3>
</center>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr valign="top">
<td valign="top">
<ol>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#1">Prologue</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#2">How every agent acts for an end</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#3">That every agent acts for a good</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#4">That evil in things is not intended</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#5">Arguments which seem to prove that evil is not apart from intention</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#6">Answers to these arguments</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#7">That evil is not an essence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#8">Arguments which seem to prove that evil is a nature or some real thing</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#9">Answers to these arguments</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#10">That good is the cause of evil</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#11">That evil is based on the good</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#12">That evil does not wholly destroy good</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#13">That evil has a cause of some sort</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#14">That evil is an accidental cause</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#15">That there is no highest evil</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#16">That the end of everything is a good</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#17">That all things are ordered to one end Who is God</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#18">How God is the end of all things</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#19">That all things tend to become like God</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#20">How things imitate divine goodness</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#21">That things naturally tend to become like God inasmuch as He is a cause</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#22">How things are ordered to their ends in various ways</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#23">That the motion of the heavens comes from an intellectual principle</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#24">How even beings devoid of knowledge seek the good</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#25">That to understand God is the end of every intellectual substance</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#26">Whether felicity consists in a will act</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#27">That human felicity does not consist in pleasures of the flesh</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#28">That felicity does not consist in honors</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#29">That man’s felicity does not consist in glory</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#30">That man’s felicity does not consist in riches</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#31">That felicity does not consist in worldly power</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#32">That felicity does not consist in goods of the body</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#33">That human felicity does not lie in the senses 119</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#34">That man’s ultimate felicity does not lie in acts of the moral virtues</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#35">That ultimate felicity does not lie in the act of prudence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#36">That felicity does not consist in the operation of art</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#37">That the ultimate felicity of man consists in the contemplation of God</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#38">That human felicity does not consist in the knowledge of God which is generally possessed by most men</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#39">That human felicity does not consist in the knowledge of God gained through demonstration</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#40">Human felicity does not consist in the knowledge of God which is through faith</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#41">Whether in this life man is able to understand separate substances through the study and investigation of the speculative sciences</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#42">That we cannot in this life understand separate substances in the way that Alexander claimed</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#43">That we cannot in this life understand separate substances in the way that Averroes claimed</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#44">That man’s ultimate felicity does not consist in the kind of knowledge of separate substances that the foregoing opinions assume</a>
</ol>
<td valign="top">
<ol>
<li value="45">
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#45">That in this life we cannot understand separate substances</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#46">That the soul does not understand itself through itself in this life</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#47">That in this life we cannot see God through His essence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#48">That man’s ultimate felicity does not come in this life</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#49">That separate substances do not see God in His essence by knowing Him through their essence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#50">That the natural desire of separate substances does not come to rest in the natural knowledge which they have of God</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#51">How God may be seen in His essence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#52">That no created substance can, by its own natural power, attain the vision of God in His essence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#53">That the created intellect needs an influx of divine light in order to see God through His essence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#54">Arguments by which it seems to be proved that God cannot be seen in His essence, and the answers to them</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#55">That the created intellect does not comprehend the divine substance</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#56">That no created intellect while seeing God sees all that can be seen in Him</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#57">That every intellect, whatever its level, can be a participant in the divine vision</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#58">That one being is able to see God more perfectly than another</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#59">How those who see the divine substance may see all things</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#60">That those who see God see all things in Him at once</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#61">That through the vision of God one becomes a partaker of eternal life</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#62">That those who see God will see Him perpetually</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#63">How man’s every desire is fulfilled in that ultimate felicity</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#64">That God governs things by His providence</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#65">That God preserves things in being</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#66">That nothing gives being except in so far as it</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#67">That God is the cause of operation for all things that operate</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#68">That God is everywhere</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#69">The opinion of those who take away proper actions from natural things</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#70">How the same effect is from God and from a natural agent</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#71">That divine providence does not entirely exclude evil from things</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#72">That divine providence does not exclude contingency from things</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#73">That divine providence does not exclude freedom of choice</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#74">That divine providence does not exclude fortune and chance</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#75">That God’s providence applies to contingent singulars</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#76">That God’s providence applies immediately to all singulars</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#77">That the execution of divine providence is accomplished by means of secondary causes</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#78">That other creatures are ruled by God by means of intellectual creatures</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#79">That lower intellectual substances are ruled by higher ones</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#80">On the ordering of the angels among themselves</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#81">On the ordering of men among themselves and to other things</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#82">That lower bodies are ruled by God through celestial bodies</a>
<li>
<a href="ContraGentiles3a.htm#83">Epilogue to the preceding chapters</a>
</ol>
</table>
<hr>
<a name="1" id="1"></a>
<table cellpadding="12">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Caput 1</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 1<br>
Prologue</b>
<tr valign="top" style="text-align:justify">
<td>Deus magnus dominus et rex magnus super omnes deos. Quoniam non repellet dominus plebem suam. Quia in manu eius sunt omnes fines terrae, et altitudines montium ipsius sunt. Quoniam ipsius est mare et ipse fecit illud, et siccam manus eius formaverunt. Psalm. XCIV.
<td>“The Lord is a great God and a great King above all gods” (Ps 94:3). “For the Lord will not cast off His people” (Ps. 93:14)”For in His hand are all the ends of the earth, and the heights of the mountains are His. For the sea is His and He made it, and His hands formed dry land” (Ps. 94:4-5)
<tr valign="top" style="text-align:justify">
<td>Unum esse primum entium, totius esse perfectionem plenam possidens, quod Deum dicimus, in superioribus est ostensum, qui ex sui perfectionis abundantia omnibus existentibus esse largitur, ut non solum primum entium, sed et principium omnium esse comprobetur. Esse autem aliis tribuit non necessitate naturae, sed secundum suae arbitrium voluntatis, ut ex superioribus est manifestum. Unde consequens est ut factorum suorum sit dominus: nam super ea quae nostrae voluntati subduntur, dominamur. Hoc autem dominium super res a se productas perfectum habet, utpote qui ad eas producendas nec exterioris agentis adminiculo indiget, nec materiae fundamento: cum sit totius esse universalis effector.
<td>[1] That there is one First Being, possessing the full perfection of the whole of being, and that we call Him God, has been shown in the preceding Books. From the abundance of His perfection, He endows all existing things with being, so that He is fully established not only as the First Being but also as the original source of all existing things. Moreover, He has granted being to other things, not by a necessity of His nature but according to the choice of His will, as has been made clear in our earlier explanations. From this it follows that He is the Lord of the things that He has made, for we are masters of the things that are subject to our will. In fact, He holds perfect dominion over things produced by Himself, since to produce them He is in need neither of the assistance of an external agent nor of the underlying presence of matter, for He is the universal maker of the whole of being.
<tr valign="top" style="text-align:justify">
<td>Eorum autem quae per voluntatem producuntur agentis, unumquodque ab agente in finem aliquem ordinatur: bonum enim et finis est obiectum proprium voluntatis, unde necesse est ut quae ex voluntate procedunt, ad finem aliquem ordinentur. Finem autem ultimum unaquaeque res per suam consequitur actionem, quam oportet in finem dirigi ab eo qui principia rebus dedit per quae agunt.
<td>[2] Now, each of the things produced through the will of an agent is directed to an end by the agent. For the proper object of the will is the good and the end. As a result, things which proceed from will must be directed to some end. Moreover, each thing achieves its ultimate end through its own action which must be directed to the end by Him Who gives things the principles through which they act.
<tr valign="top" style="text-align:justify">
<td>Necesse est igitur ut Deus, qui est in se universaliter perfectus et omnibus entibus ex sua potestate esse largitur, omnium entium rector existat, a nullo utique directus: nec est aliquid quod ab eius regimine excusetur, sicut nec est aliquid quod ab ipso esse non sortiatur. Est igitur, sicut perfectus in essendo et causando, ita etiam et in regendo perfectus.
<td>[3] So, it must be that God, Who is in all ways perfect in Himself, and Who endows all things with being from His own power, exists as the Ruler of all beings, and is ruled by none other. Nor is there anything that escapes His rule, just as there is nothing that does not receive its being from Him. As He is perfect in being and causing, so also is He perfect in ruling.
<tr valign="top" style="text-align:justify">
<td>Huius vero regiminis effectus in diversis apparet diversimode, secundum differentiam naturarum. Quaedam namque sic a Deo producta sunt ut, intellectum habentia, eius similitudinem gerant et imaginem repraesentent: unde et ipsa non solum sunt directa, sed et seipsa dirigentia secundum proprias actiones in debitum finem. Quae si in sua directione divino subdantur regimini, ad ultimum finem consequendum ex divino regimine admittuntur: repelluntur autem si secus in sua directione processerint.
<td>[4] Of course, the result of this rule is manifested differently in different beings, depending on the diversity of their natures. For some beings so exist as God’s products that, possessing understanding, they bear His likeness and reflect His image. Consequently, they are not only ruled but are also rulers of themselves, inasmuch as their own actions are directed to a fitting end. If these beings submit to the divine rule in their own ruling, then by virtue of the divine rule they are admitted to the achievement of their ultimate end; but, if they proceed otherwise in their own ruling, they are rejected.
<tr valign="top" style="text-align:justify">
<td>Alia vero, intellectu carentia, seipsa in suum finem non dirigunt, sed ab alio diriguntur. Quorum quaedam, incorruptibilia existentia, sicut in esse naturali pati non possunt defectum, ita in propriis actionibus ab ordine in finem eis praestitutum nequaquam exorbitant, sed indeficienter regimini primi regentis subduntur: sicut sunt corpora caelestia, quorum motus semper uniformiter procedunt.
<td>[5] Still other beings, devoid of understanding, do not direct themselves to their end, but are directed by another being. Some of these are incorruptible and, as they can suffer no defect in their natural being, so in their own actions they never fail to follow the order to the end which is prearranged for them. They are unfailingly subject to the rule of the First Ruler. Such are the celestial bodies whose motions occur in ever the same way.
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<td>Alia vero, corruptibilia existentia, naturalis esse pati possunt defectum, qui tamen per alterius profectum suppletur: nam, uno corrupto, aliud generatur. Et similiter in actionibus propriis a naturali ordine deficiunt, qui tamen defectus per aliquod bonum inde proveniens compensatur. Ex quo apparet quod nec illa quae ab ordine primi regiminis exorbitare videntur, potestatem primi regentis evadunt: nam et haec corruptibilia corpora, sicut ab ipso Deo condita sunt, ita potestati eius perfecte subduntur.
<td>[6] Other beings, however, are corruptible. They can suffer a defect in their natural being, yet such a defect works to the advantage of another being. For, when one thing is corrupted, another comes into being. Likewise, in their proper actions they may fall short of the natural order, yet such a failure is balanced by the good which comes from it. Thus, it is evident that not even those things which appear to depart from the order of the primary rule do actually escape the power of the First Ruler. Even these corruptible bodies are perfectly subject to His power, just as they are created by God Himself.
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<td>Hoc igitur, divino repletus spiritu, Psalmista considerans, ut nobis divinum regimen demonstraret, primo describit nobis primi regentis perfectionem: naturae quidem, in hoc quod dicit Deus, potestatis, in hoc quod dicit magnus dominus, quasi nullo indigens ad suae potestatis effectum producendum; auctoritatis, in hoc quod dicit rex magnus super omnes deos, quia, etsi sint multi regentes, omnes tamen eius regimini subduntur.
<td>[7] Contemplating this fact, the Psalmist, being filled with the Holy Spirit, first describes for us the perfection of the First Ruler, in order to point out the divine rule to us: as a perfection of nature, by the use of the term “God”; as a perfection of power, by the use of the words, “great Lord” (suggesting that He has need of no other being for His power to produce His effect); and as a perfection of authority, by the use of the phrase, “a great King above all gods” (for even if there be many rulers, they are all nonetheless subject to His rule).
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<td>Secundo autem nobis describit regiminis modum. Et quidem quantum ad intellectualia, quae, eius regimen sequentia, ab ipso consequuntur ultimum finem, qui est ipse: et ideo dicit, quia non repellet dominus plebem suam. Quantum vero ad corruptibilia, quae, etiam si exorbitent interdum a propriis actionibus, a potestate tamen primi regentis non excluduntur, dicit, quia in manu eius sunt omnes fines terrae. Quantum vero ad caelestia corpora, quae omnem altitudinem terrae excedunt, idest corruptibilium corporum, et semper rectum ordinem divini regiminis servant, dicit, et altitudines montium ipsius sunt.
<td>[8] In the second place, he describes for us the manner of this rule. First, as regards those intellectual beings who are led by Him to their ultimate end, which is Himself, he uses this expression: “For the Lord will not cast off His people.” Next, in regard to corruptible beings which are not removed from the power of the First Ruler, even if they go astray sometimes in their own actions, he says: “For in His hands are all the ends of the earth.” Then, in regard to celestial bodies which exist above all the highest parts of the earth (that is, of corruptible bodies) and which always observe the right order of the divine rule, he says: “and the heights of the mountains are His.”
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<td>Tertio vero ipsius universalis regiminis rationem assignat: quia necesse est ut ea quae a Deo sunt condita, ab ipso etiam regantur. Et hoc est quod dicit, quoniam ipsius est mare et cetera.
<td>[9] In the third place, he indicates the reason for this universal rule: the things created by God must also be ruled by Him. Thus it is that he says: “For the sea is His,” and so on.
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<td>Quia ergo in primo libro de perfectione divinae naturae prosecuti sumus; in secundo autem de perfectione potestatis ipsius, secundum quod est rerum omnium productor et dominus: restat in hoc tertio libro prosequi de perfecta auctoritate sive dignitate ipsius, secundum quod est rerum omnium finis et rector. Erit ergo hoc ordine procedendum: ut primo agatur de ipso secundum quod est rerum omnium finis. Secundo, de regimine universali ipsius, secundum quod omnem creaturam gubernat. Tertio, de speciali regimine, prout gubernat creaturas intellectum habentes.
<td>[10] Therefore, since we have treated of the perfection of the divine nature in Book One, and of the perfection of His power inasmuch as He is the Maker and Lord of all things in Book Two, there remains to be treated in this third Book His perfect authority or dignity, inasmuch as He is the End and Ruler of all things. So, this will be our order of procedure: first, we shall treat of Himself, according as He is the end of all things; second, of His universal rule, according as He governs every creature [64-110]; third, of His particular rule, according as He governs creatures possessed of understanding [111-163.
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 2<br>
Quod omne agens agit propter finem</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 2<br>
HOW EVERY AGENT ACTS FOR AN END</b>
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<td>Ostendendum est igitur primo, quod omne agens in agendo intendit aliquem finem.
<td>[1] The first thing that we must show, then, is that in acting every agent intends an end.
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<td>In his enim quae manifeste propter finem agunt, hoc dicimus esse finem in quod tendit impetus agentis: hoc enim adipiscens dicitur adipisci finem, deficiens autem ab hoc dicitur deficere a fine intento; sicut patet in medico agente ad sanitatem, et homine currente ad certum terminum. Nec differt, quantum ad hoc, utrum quod tendit in finem sit cognoscens, vel non: sicut enim signum est finis sagittantis, ita est finis motus sagittae. Omnis autem agentis impetus ad aliquid certum tendit: non enim ex quacumque virtute quaevis actio procedit, sed a calore quidem calefactio, a frigore autem infrigidatio; unde et actiones secundum diversitatem activorum specie differunt. Actio vero quandoque quidem terminatur ad aliquod factum, sicut aedificatio ad domum, sanatio ad sanitatem: quandoque autem non, sicut intelligere et sentire. Et si quidem actio terminatur ad aliquod factum, impetus agentis tendit per actionem in illud factum: si autem non terminatur ad aliquod factum, impetus agentis tendit in ipsam actionem. Oportet igitur quod omne agens in agendo intendat finem: quandoque quidem actionem ipsam; quandoque aliquid per actionem factum.
<td>[2] In the case of things which obviously act for an end we call that toward which the inclination of the agent tend the end. For, if it attain this, it is said to attain its end; but if it fail in regard to this, it fails in regard to the end in tended, as is evident in the case of the physician working for the sake of health, and of the man who is running toward a set objective. As far as this point is concerned, it makes n difference whether the being tending to an end is a knowing being or not. For, just as the target is the end for the archer, so is it the end for the motion of the arrow. Now every inclination of an agent tends toward something definite. A given action does not stem from merely any power but heating comes from heat, cooling from cold. Thus it is that, actions are specifically distinguished by virtue of diversity of active powers. In fact, an action may sometime terminate in something which is made, as building does in a house, and as healing does in health. Sometimes, however, it does not, as in the cases of understanding an sensing. Now, if an action does in fact terminate in some thing that is made, the inclination of the agent tend through the action toward the thing that is produced. But if it does not terminate in a product, then the inclination of the agent tends toward the action itself. So, it must be that every agent in acting intends an end, sometimes the action itself, sometimes a thing produced by the action.
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<td>Adhuc. In omnibus agentibus propter finem, hoc esse ultimum finem dicimus, ultra quod agens non quaerit aliquid: sicut actio medici est usque ad sanitatem, ea vero consecuta, non conatur ad aliquid ulterius. Sed in actione cuiuslibet agentis est invenire aliquid ultra quod agens non quaerit aliquid: alias enim actiones in infinitum tenderent; quod quidem est impossibile, quia, cum infinita non sit pertransire, agens agere non inciperet; nihil enim movetur ad id ad quod impossibile est pervenire. Omne igitur agens agit propter finem.
<td>[3] Again, with reference to all things that act for an end, we say that the ultimate end is that beyond which the agent seeks nothing else; thus, the action of a physician goes as far as health, but when it is attained there is no desire for anything further. Now, in the action of all agents, one may find something beyond which the agent seeks nothing further. Otherwise, actions would tend to infinity, which is impossible. Since “it is impossible to proceed to infinity,” the agent could not begin to act, because nothing is moved toward what cannot be reached. Therefore, every agent acts for an end.
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<td>Amplius. Si actiones agentis procedant in infinitum, oportet quod vel ex istis actionibus sequatur aliquod factum, vel non. Si quidem sequatur aliquod factum, esse illius facti sequetur post infinitas actiones. Quod autem praeexigit infinita, impossibile est esse: cum non sit infinita pertransire. Quod autem impossibile est esse, impossibile est fieri: et quod impossibile est fieri, impossibile est facere. Impossibile est igitur quod agens incipiat facere aliquod factum ad quod praeexiguntur actiones infinitae.
<td>[4] Besides, if the actions of an agent are supposed to proceed to infinity, then there must be as a consequence to these actions either something that is produced, or nothing. Supposing that there is something that results, then the existence of this thing would come about after an infinite number of actions. But that which presupposes an infinite number of things cannot come into existence, since it is impossible to proceed to infinity. Now, that which is impossible in regard to being is impossible in regard to coming into being. And it is impossible to produce that which cannot come into being. Therefore, it is impossible for an agent to begin to produce something that presupposes an infinite number of actions.
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<td>Si autem ex illis actionibus non sequitur aliquod factum, oportet ordinem huiusmodi actionum esse vel secundum ordinem virtutum activarum, sicut si homo sentit ut imaginetur, imaginatur autem ut intelligat, intelligit autem ut velit: vel secundum ordinem obiectorum, sicut considero corpus ut considerem animam, quam considero ut considerem substantiam separatam, quam considero ut considerem Deum. Non autem est possibile procedere in infinitum neque in virtutibus activis, sicut neque in formis rerum, ut probatur in II Metaph., forma enim est agendi principium: neque in obiectis, sicut neque in entibus, cum sit unum primum ens, ut supra probatum est. Non est igitur possibile quod actiones in infinitum procedant. Oportet igitur esse aliquid quo habito conatus agentis quiescat. Omne igitur agens agit propter finem.
<td>Supposing, on the other hand, that nothing follows as a product of these actions, then the order of such actions must either depend on the ordering of the active powers (as in the case of a man who senses so that he may imagine, imagines so that he may understand, and then understands so that he may will); or it depends on the ordering of objects (thus, I think of body so that I may be able to think of soul, which latter I think so that I may be able to think of immaterial substance, which in turn I think so that I may be able to think about God). Indeed, it is impossible to proceed to infinity, either through a series of active powers (for instance, through the forms of things, as is proved in <i>Metaphysics</i> [Ia, 2: 994a 1–b6], for the form is the principle of action) or through a series of objects (for there is not an infinite number of beings, because there is one First Being, as we demonstrated earlier [I:42]). So, it is not possible for actions to proceed to infinity. There must, then, be something which satisfies the agent’s desire when it is attained. Therefore, every agent acts for an end.
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<td>Item. In his quae agunt propter finem, omnia intermedia inter primum agens et ultimum finem sunt fines respectu priorum et principia activa respectu sequentium. Si igitur conatus agentis non est ad aliquid determinatum, sed actiones, sicut dictum est, procedunt in infinitum, oportet principia activa in infinitum procedere. Quod est impossibile, ut supra ostensum est. Necesse est igitur quod conatus agentis sit ad aliquid determinatum.
<td>[5] Moreover, for things which act for an end, all things intermediate between the first agent and the ultimate end are as ends in regard to things prior, and as active principles with regard to things consequent. So, if the agent’s desire is not directed to some definite thing, but, rather, the actions are multiplied to infinity, as was said, then the active principles must be multiplied to infinity. This is impossible, as we showed above. Therefore, the agent’s desire must be directed to some definite thing.
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<td>Adhuc. Omne agens vel agit per naturam, vel per intellectum. De agentibus autem per intellectum non est dubium quin agant propter finem: agunt enim praeconcipientes in intellectu id quod per actionem consequuntur, et ex tali praeconceptione agunt; hoc enim est agere per intellectum. Sicut autem in intellectu praeconcipiente existit tota similitudo effectus ad quem per actiones intelligentis pervenitur, ita in agente naturali praeexistit similitudo naturalis effectus, ex qua actio ad hunc effectum determinatur: nam ignis generat ignem, et oliva olivam. Sicut igitur agens per intellectum tendit in finem determinatum per suam actionem, ita agens per naturam. Omne igitur agens agit propter finem.
<td>[6] Furthermore, for every agent the principle of its action is either its nature or its intellect. Now, there is no question that intellectual agents act for the sake of an end, because they think ahead of time in their intellects of the things which they achieve through action; and their action stems from such preconception. This is what it means for intellect to be the principle of action. just as the entire likeness of the result achieved by the actions of an intelligent agent exists in the intellect that preconceives it, so, too, does the likeness of a natural resultant pre-exist in the natural agent; and as a consequence of this, the action is determined to a definite result. For fire gives rise to fire, and an olive to an olive. Therefore, the agent that acts with nature as its principle is just as much directed to a definite end, in its action, as is the agent that acts through intellect as its principle. Therefore, every agent acts for an end.
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<td>Amplius. Peccatum non invenitur nisi in his quae sunt propter finem: nec enim imputatur alicui ad peccatum si deficiat ab eo ad quod non est; medico enim imputatur ad peccatum si deficiat a sanando, non autem aedificatori aut grammatico. Sed peccatum invenimus in his quae fiunt secundum artem, sicut cum grammaticus non recte loquitur; et in his quae sunt secundum naturam, sicut patet in partubus monstruosis. Ergo tam agens secundum naturam, quam agens secundum artem et a proposito, agit propter finem.
<td>[7] Again, there is no fault to be found, except in the case of things that are for the sake of an end. A fault is never attributed to an agent, if the failure is related to something that is not the agent’s end. Thus, the fault of failing to heal is imputed to the physician, but not to the builder or the grammarian. We do find fault with things done according to art, for instance, when the grammarian does not speak correctly, and also in things done according to nature, as is evident in the case of the birth of monsters. Therefore, it is just as true of the agent that acts in accord with nature as of the agent who acts in accord with art and as a result of previous planning that action is for the sake of an end.
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<td>Item. Si agens non tenderet ad aliquem effectum determinatum, omnes effectus essent ei indifferentes. Quod autem indifferenter se habet ad multa, non magis unum eorum operatur quam aliud: unde a contingente ad utrumque non sequitur aliquis effectus nisi per aliquid determinetur ad unum. Impossibile igitur esset quod ageret. Omne igitur agens tendit ad aliquem determinatum effectum, quod dicitur finis eius.
<td>[8] Besides, if an agent did not incline toward some definite effect, all results would be a matter of indifference for him. Now, he who looks upon a manifold number of things with indifference no more succeeds in doing one of them than another. Hence, from an agent contingently indifferent to alternatives no effect follows, unless he be determined to one effect by something. So, it would be impossible for him to act. Therefore, every agent tends toward some determinate effect, and this is called his end.
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<td>Sunt autem aliquae actiones quae non videntur esse propter finem, sicut actiones ludicrae et contemplatoriae, et actiones quae absque attentione fiunt, sicut confricatio barbae et huiusmodi: ex quibus aliquis opinari potest quod sit aliquod agens non propter finem. Sed sciendum quod actiones contemplativae non sunt propter alium finem, sed ipsae sunt finis. Actiones autem ludicrae interdum sunt finis, cum quis solum ludit propter delectationem quae in ludo est: quandoque autem sunt propter finem, ut cum ludimus ut postmodum melius studeamus. Actiones autem quae fiunt sine attentione, non sunt ab intellectu, sed ab aliqua subita imaginatione vel naturali principio: sicut inordinatio humoris pruritum excitantis est causa confricationis barbae, quae fit sine attentione intellectus. Et haec ad aliquem finem tendunt, licet praeter ordinem intellectus.
<td>[9] Of course, there are some actions that do not seem to be for an end. Examples are playful and contemplative actions, and those that are done without attention, like rubbing one’s beard and the like. These examples could make a person think that there are some cases of acting without an end. However, we must understand that contemplative actions are not for another end, but are themselves ends. On the other hand, acts of play are sometimes ends, as in the case of a man who plays solely for the pleasure attaching to play; at other times they are for an end, for instance, when we play so that we can study better afterward. Actions that are done without attention do not stem from the intellect but from some sudden act of imagination or from a natural source. Thus, a disorder of the.humors produces an itch and is the cause of rubbing the beard, and this is done without intellectual attention. So, these actions do tend to some end, though quite apart from the order of the intellect.
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<td>Per hoc autem excluditur antiquorum naturalium error; qui ponebant omnia fieri ex necessitate materiae, causam finalem a rebus penitus subtrahentes.
<td>[10] Through this consideration the error of the ancient natural philosophers is refuted; they claimed that all things come about as a result of material necessity, for they completely excluded final cause from things.
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<hr></a> <a name="3" id="3">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 3<br>
Quod omne agens agit propter bonum</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 3<br>
THAT EVERY AGENT ACTS FOR A GOOD</b>
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<td>Ex hoc autem ulterius ostendendum est quod omne agens agit propter bonum.
<td>[1] Next after this we must show that every agent acts for a good.
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<td>Inde enim manifestum est omne agens agere propter finem, quia quodlibet agens tendit ad aliquod determinatum. Id autem ad quod agens determinate tendit, oportet esse conveniens ei: non enim tenderet in ipsum nisi propter aliquam convenientiam ad ipsum. Quod autem est conveniens alicui, est ei bonum. Ergo omne agens agit propter bonum.
<td>[2] That every agent acts for an end has been made clear from the fact that every agent tends toward something definite. Now, that toward which an agent tends in a definite way must be appropriate to it, because the agent would not be inclined to it except by virtue of some agreement with it. But, what is appropriate to something is good for it. So, every agent acts for a good.
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<td>Praeterea. Finis est in quo quiescit appetitus agentis vel moventis, et eius quod movetur. Hoc autem est de ratione boni, ut terminet appetitum: nam bonum est quod omnia appetunt. Omnis ergo actio et motus est propter bonum.
<td>[3] Again, the end is that in which the appetitive inclination of an agent or mover, and of the thing moved, finds its rest. Now, the essential meaning of the good is that it provides a terminus for appetite, since “the good is that which all desire.” Therefore, every action and motion are for the sake of a good.
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<td>Adhuc. Omnis actio et motus ad esse aliquo modo ordinari videtur: vel ut conservetur secundum speciem vel individuum; vel ut de novo acquiratur. Hoc autem ipsum quod est esse, bonum est. Et ideo omnia appetunt esse. Omnis igitur actio et motus est propter bonum.
<td>[4] Besides, every action and movement are seen to be ordered in some way toward being, either that it may be preserved in the species or in the individual, or that it may be newly acquired. Now, the very fact of being is a good, and so all things desire to be. Therefore, every action and movement are for the sake of a good.
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<td>Amplius. Omnis actio et motus est propter aliquam perfectionem. Si enim ipsa actio sit finis, manifestum est quod est perfectio secunda agentis. Si autem actio sit transmutatio exterioris materiae, manifestum est quod movens intendit aliquam perfectionem inducere in re mota; in quam etiam tendit mobile, si sit motus naturalis. Hoc autem dicimus esse bonum quod est esse perfectum. Omnis igitur actio et motus est propter bonum.
<td>[5] Moreover, every action and movement are for the sake of some perfection. Even if the action itself be the end, it is clear that it is a secondary perfection of the agent. But, if the action be a changing of external matter, it is obvious that the mover intends to bring about some perfection in the thing that is moved. Even the thing that is moved also tends toward this, if it be a case of natural movement. Now, we call what is perfect a good. So, every action and movement are for the sake of a good.
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<td>Item. Omne agens agit secundum quod est actu. Agendo autem tendit in sibi simile. Igitur tendit in actum aliquem. Actus autem omnis habet rationem boni: nam malum non invenitur nisi in potentia deficiente ab actu. Omnis igitur actio est propter bonum.
<td>[6] Furthermore, every agent acts in so far as it is in act, and in acting it tends to produce something like itself. So, it tends toward some act. But every act has something of good in its essential character, for there is no evil thing that is not in a condition of potency falling short of its act. Therefore, every action is for the sake of a good.
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<td>Adhuc. Agens per intellectum agit propter finem sicut determinans sibi finem: agens autem per naturam, licet agat propter finem, ut probatum est, non tamen determinat sibi finem, cum non cognoscat rationem finis, sed movetur in finem determinatum sibi ab alio. Agens autem per intellectum non determinat sibi finem nisi sub ratione boni: intelligibile enim non movet nisi sub ratione boni, quod est obiectum voluntatis. Ergo et agens per naturam non movetur neque agit propter aliquem finem nisi secundum quod est bonum: cum agenti per naturam determinetur finis ab aliquo appetitu. Omne igitur agens propter bonum agit.
<td>[7] Again, an intelligent agent acts for the sake of an end, in the sense that it determines the end for itself. On the other hand, an agent that acts from a natural impulse, though acting for an end, as we showed in the preceding chapter, does not determine the end for itself, since it does not know the meaning of an end, but, rather, is moved toward an end determined for it by another being. Now, the intelligent agent does not determine the end for itself, unless it do so by considering the rational character of the good, for an object of the intellect is only motivating by virtue of the rational meaning of the good, which is the object of the will. Therefore, even the natural agent is neither moved, nor does it move, for the sake of an end, except in so far as the end is a good; for the end is determined for the natural agent by some appetite. Therefore, every agent acts for the sake of a good.
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<td>Item. Eiusdem rationis est fugere malum et appetere bonum: sicut eiusdem rationis est moveri a deorsum et moveri sursum. Omnia autem inveniuntur malum fugere: nam agentia per intellectum hac ratione aliquid fugiunt, quia apprehendunt illud ut malum; omnia autem agentia naturalia, quantum habent de virtute, tantum resistunt corruptioni, quae est malum uniuscuiusque. Omnia igitur agunt propter bonum.
<td>[8] Besides, there is the same general reason for avoiding evil that there is for seeking the good, just as there is the same general reason for moving downward and for moving upward. But all things are known to flee from evil; in fact, intelligent agents avoid a thing for this reason: they recognize it as an evil thing. Now, all natural agents resist corruption, which is an evil for each individual, to the full extent of their power. Therefore, all things act for the sake of a good.
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<td>Adhuc. Quod provenit ex alicuius agentis actione praeter intentionem ipsius, dicitur a casu vel fortuna accidere. Videmus autem in operibus naturae accidere vel semper vel frequentius quod melius est: sicut in plantis folia sic esse disposita ut protegant fructus; et partes animalium sic disponi ut animal salvari possit. Si igitur hoc evenit praeter intentionem naturalis agentis, hoc erit a casu vel fortuna. Sed hoc est impossibile: nam ea quae accidunt semper vel frequenter, non sunt casualia neque fortuita, sed quae accidunt in paucioribus. Naturale igitur agens intendit ad id quod melius est. Et multo manifestius quod agit per intellectum. Omne igitur agens intendit bonum in agendo.
<td>[9] Moreover, that which results from the action of an agent, but apart from the intention of the agent, is said to happen by chance or by luck. But we observe that what happens in the workings of nature is either always, or mostly, for the better. Thus, in the plant world leaves are arranged so as to protect the fruit, and among animals the bodily organs are disposed in such a way that the animal can be protected. So, if this came about apart from the intention of the natural agent, it would be by chance or by luck. But this is impossible, for things which occur always, or for the most part, are neither chance nor fortuitous events, but only those which occur in few instances. Therefore, the natural agent tends toward what is better, and it is much more evident that the intelligent agent does so. Hence, every agent intends the good when it acts.
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<td>Item. Omne quod movetur ducitur ad terminum motus a movente et agente. Oportet igitur movens et motum ad idem tendere. Quod autem movetur, cum sit in potentia, tendit ad actum, et ita ad perfectum et bonum: per motum enim exit de potentia in actum. Ergo et movens et agens semper in movendo et agendo intendit bonum.
<td>[10] Furthermore, everything that is moved is brought to the terminus of the movement by the mover and agent. So, the mover and the object moved must tend toward the same thing. Now, the object moved, since it is in potency, tends toward act, and so toward the perfect and the good, for it goes from potency to act through movement. Therefore, both the mover and the agent always intend the good in their movement and action.
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<td>Hinc est quod philosophi definientes bonum dixerunt: bonum est quod omnia appetunt. Et Dionysius, IV cap., de divinis nominibus, dicit quod omnia bonum et optimum concupiscunt.
<td>[11] This is the reason why the philosophers, in defining the good, have said: “the good is what all desire. And Dionysius states that “all crave the good and the best [ <i>De div. nom.</i> IV, 4].”
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<hr></a> <a name="4" id="4">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 4<br>
Quod malum est praeter intentionem in rebus</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 4<br>
THAT EVIL IN THINGS IS NOT INTENDED</b>
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<td>Ex hoc autem apparet quod malum in rebus incidit praeter intentionem agentium.
<td>[1] From this it is clear that evil occurs in things apart from the intention of the agents.
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<td>Quod enim ex actione consequitur diversum ab eo quod erat intentum ab agente, manifestum est praeter intentionem accidere. Malum autem diversum est a bono, quod intendit omne agens. Est igitur malum praeter intentionem eveniens.
<td>[2] For that which follows from an action, as a different result from that intended by the agent, clearly happens apart from intention. Now, evil is different from the good which every agent intends. Therefore, evil is a result apart from intention.
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<td>Item. Defectus in effectu et actione consequitur aliquem defectum in principiis actionis: sicut ex aliqua corruptione seminis sequitur partus monstruosus, et ex curvitate cruris sequitur claudicatio. Agens autem agit secundum quod habet de virtute activa, non secundum id quod defectum virtutis patitur. Secundum autem quod agit, sic intendit finem. Intendit igitur finem correspondentem virtuti. Quod igitur sequitur respondens defectui virtutis, erit praeter intentionem agentis. Hoc autem est malum. Accidit igitur malum praeter intentionem.
<td>[3] Again, a defect in an effect and in an action results from some defect in the principles of the action; for instance, the birth of a monstrosity results from some corruption of the semen, and lameness results from a bending of the leg bone. Now, an agent acts in keeping with the active power that it has, not in accord with the defect of power to which it is subject. According as it acts, so does it intend the end. Therefore, it intends an end corresponding to its power. So, that which results as an effect of the defect of power will be apart from the intention of the agent. Now, this is evil. Hence, evil occurs apart from intention.
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<td>Adhuc. Ad idem tendit motus mobilis et motio moventis. Mobile autem tendit per se ad bonum: ad malum autem per accidens et praeter intentionem. Quod quidem maxime in generatione et corruptione apparet. Materia enim, cum est sub una forma, est in potentia ad formam aliam et privationem formae iam habitae: sicut, cum est sub forma aeris, est in potentia ad formam ignis et privationem formae aeris. Et ad utrumque transmutatio materiae terminatur simul: ad formam quidem ignis secundum quod generatur ignis, ad privationem autem formae aeris secundum quod corrumpitur aer. Non autem intentio et appetitus materiae est ad privationem, sed ad formam: non enim tendit ad impossibile; est autem impossibile materiam tantum sub privatione esse, esse vero eam sub forma est possibile. Igitur quod terminetur ad privationem est praeter intentionem; terminatur autem ad eam inquantum pervenit ad formam quam intendit, quam privatio alterius formae de necessitate consequitur. Transmutatio igitur materiae in generatione et corruptione per se ordinatur ad formam, privatio vero consequitur praeter intentionem. Et similiter oportet esse in omnibus motibus. Et ideo in quolibet motu est generatio et corruptio secundum quid: sicut, cum aliquid alteratur de albo in nigrum, corrumpitur album et fit nigrum. Bonum autem est secundum quod materia est perfecta per formam, et potentia per actum proprium: malum autem secundum quod est privata actu debito. Omne igitur quod movetur intendit in suo motu pervenire ad bonum, pervenit autem ad malum praeter intentionem. Igitur, cum omne agens et movens intendat ad bonum, malum provenit praeter intentionem agentis.
<td>[4] Besides, the movement of a mobile thing and the motion of its mover tend toward the same objective. Of itself, the mobile thing tends toward the good, but it may tend toward evil accidentally and apart from intention. This is best seen in generation and corruption. When it is under one form, matter is in potency to another form and to the privation of the form it already has. Thus, when it is under the form of air, it is in potency to the form of fire and to the privation of the form of air. Change in the matter terminates in both at the same time; in the form of fire, in so far as fire is generated; in the privation of the form of air, inasmuch as air is corrupted. Now, the intention and appetite of matter are not toward privation but toward form, for it does not tend toward the impossible. Now, it is impossible for matter to exist under privation alone, but for it to exist under a form is possible. Therefore, that which terminates in a privation is apart from intention. It terminates in a privation inasmuch as it attains the form which it intends, and the privation of another form is a necessary result of this attainment. So, the changing of matter in generation and corruption is essentially ordered to the form, but the privation is a consequence apart from the intention. The same should be true for all cases of change. Therefore, in every change there is a generation and a corruption, in some sense; for instance, when a thing changes from white to black, the white is corrupted and the black comes into being. Now, it is a good thing for matter to be perfected through form, and for potency to be perfected through its proper act, but it is a bad thing for it to be deprived of its due act. So, everything that is moved tends in its movement to reach a good, but it reaches an evil apart from such a tendency. Therefore, since every agent and mover tends to the good, evil arises apart from the intention of the agent.
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<td>Amplius. In agentibus per intellectum et aestimationem quamcumque, intentio sequitur apprehensionem: in illud enim tendit intentio quod apprehenditur ut finis. Si igitur perveniatur ad aliquid quod non habet speciem apprehensam, erit praeter intentionem: sicut, si aliquis intendat comedere mel, et comedat fel credens illud esse mel, hoc erit praeter intentionem. Sed omne agens per intellectum tendit ad aliquid secundum quod accipit illud sub ratione boni, sicut ex superioribus patet. Si ergo illud non sit bonum, sed malum, hoc erit praeter intentionem. Agens igitur per intellectum non operatur malum nisi praeter intentionem. Cum igitur tendere ad bonum sit commune agenti per intellectum et per naturam, malum non consequitur ex intentione alicuius agentis nisi praeter intentionem.
<td>[5] Moreover, in the case of beings that act as a result of understanding or of some sort of sense judgment, intention is a consequence of apprehension, for the intention tends to what is apprehended as an end. If it actually attains something which does not possess the specific nature of what was apprehended, then this will be apart from the intention. For example, if someone intends to eat honey, but he cats poison, in the belief that it is honey, then this will be apart from the intention. But every intelligent agent tends toward something in so far as he considers the object under the rational character of a good, as was evident in the preceding chapter. So, if this object is not good but bad, this will be apart from his intention. Therefore, an intelligent agent does not produce an evil result, unless it be apart from his intention. Since to tend to the good is common to the intelligent agent and to the agent that acts by natural instinct, evil does not result from the intention of any agent, except apart from the intention.
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<td>Hinc est quod Dionysius dicit, IV cap. de Div. Nom., quod malum est praeter intentionem et voluntatem.
<td>Hence, Dionysius says, in the fourth chapter of <i>On the Divine names</i>: “Evil is apart from intention and will.”
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 5<br>
Rationes quibus videtur probari quod malum non sit praeter intentionem<br>
(et solutio ipsarum)</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 5<br>
ARGUMENTS WHICH SEEM TO PROVE THAT EVIL IS NOT APART FROM INTENTION</b>
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<td>Sunt autem quaedam quae huic sententiae adversarii videntur.
<td>[1] Now, there are certain points which seem to run counter to this view.
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<td>Quod enim accidit praeter intentionem agentis, dicitur esse fortuitum et casuale et in paucioribus accidens. Malum autem fieri non dicitur fortuitum et casuale, neque ut in paucioribus accidens, sed semper vel in pluribus. In naturalibus enim semper generationi corruptio adiungitur. In agentibus etiam per voluntatem in pluribus peccatum accidit: cum difficile sit secundum virtutem agere, sicut attingere centrum in circulo, ut dicit Aristoteles, in II Ethicorum. Non igitur videtur malum esse proveniens praeter intentionem.
<td>[2] That which happens apart from the intention of the agent is called fortuitous, a matter of chance, something which rarely happens. But the occurrence of evil is not called fortuitous, a matter of chance, nor does it happen rarely, but always or in most cases. For corruption always accompanies generation in the things of nature. Even in the case of volitional agents sin occurs in most cases, since “it is as difficult to act in accord with virtue as to find the center of a circle,” as Aristotle says in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> [II, 9: 1109a 24]. So, evil does not seem to happen apart from intention.
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<td>Item. Aristoteles in III Eth., expresse dicit quod malitia est voluntarium. Et hoc probat per hoc quod aliquis voluntarie operatur iniusta, irrationabile autem est operantem voluntarie iniusta non velle iniustum esse, et voluntarie stuprantem non velle incontinentem esse; et per hoc quod legislatores puniunt malos quasi voluntarie operantes mala. Non videtur igitur malum praeter voluntatem vel intentionem esse.
<td>[3] Again, in <i>Ethics III</i> [5: 1113b 16] Aristotle expressly states that “wickedness is voluntary.” He proves this by the fact that a person voluntarily performs unjust acts: “now it is unreasonable for the agent of voluntarily unjust actions not to will to be unjust, and for the self-indulgent man not to wish to be incontinent” [1114a 11]; and he proves it also by the fact that legislators punish evil men as doers of evil in a voluntary way [1113b 22]. So, it does not seem that evil occurs apart from the will or the intention.
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<td>Praeterea. Omnis motus naturalis habet finem intentum a natura. Corruptio autem est mutatio naturalis, sicut et generatio. Finis igitur eius, qui est privatio habens rationem mali, est intentus a natura: sicut etiam forma et bonum, quae sunt generationis finis.
<td>[4] Besides, every natural change has an end intended by nature. Now, corruption is a natural change, just as generation is. Therefore, its end, which is a privation having the rational character of evil, is intended by nature: just as are form and the good, which are the ends of generation.
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 6</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 6<br>
ANSWERS TO THESE ARGUMENTS</b>
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<td>Ut autem positarum rationum solutio manifestior fiat, considerandum est quod malum considerari potest vel in substantia aliqua, vel in actione ipsius. Malum quidem in substantia aliqua est ex eo quod deficit ei aliquid quod natum est et debet habere: si enim homo non habet alas, non est ei malum, quia non est natus eas habere; si etiam homo capillos flavos non habet, non est malum, quia etsi natus sit habere, non tamen est debitum ut habeat; est tamen malum si non habeat manus, quas natus est et debet habere, si sit perfectus, quod tamen non est malum avi. Omnis autem privatio, si proprie et stricte accipiatur, est eius quod quis natus est habere et debet habere. In privatione igitur sic accepta semper est ratio mali.
<td>[1] So that the solution of these alleged arguments maybe made more evident we should notice that evil may be considered either in a substance or in its action. Now, evil is in a substance because something which it was originally to have, and which it ought to have, is lacking in it. Thus, if a man has no wings, that is not an evil for him, because he was not born to have them; even if a man does not have blond hair, that is not an evil, for, though he may have such hair, it is not something that is necessarily due him. But it is an evil if he has no hands, for these he is born to, and should, have—if he is to be perfect. Yet this defect is not an evil for a bird. Every privation, if taken properly and strictly, is of that which one is born to have, and should have. So, in this strict meaning of privation, there is always the rational character of evil.
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<td>Materia autem, cum sit potentia ad omnes formas, omnes quidem nata est habere, nulla tamen est ei debita: cum sine quavis una earum possit esse perfecta in actu. Quaelibet tamen earum est debita alicui eorum quae ex materia constituuntur: nam non potest esse aqua nisi habeat formam aquae, nec potest esse ignis nisi habeat formam ignis. Privatio igitur formae huiusmodi, comparata ad materiam, non est malum materiae: sed comparata ad id cuius est forma, est malum eius, sicut privatio formae ignis est malum ignis.
<td>[2] Now, since it is in potency toward all forms, matter is indeed originated to have all of them; however, a certain one of them is not necessarily due it, since without this certain one it can be actually perfect. Of course, to each thing composed of matter some sort of form is due, for water cannot exist unless it have the form of water, nor can fire be unless it possess the form of fire. So, the privation of such forms in relation to matter is not an evil for the matter, but in relation to the thing whose form it is, it is an evil for it; just as the privation of the form of fire is an evil for fire.
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<td>Et quia tam privationes quam habitus et formae non dicuntur esse nisi secundum quod sunt in subiecto, si quidem privatio sit malum per comparationem ad subiectum in quo est, erit malum simpliciter: sin autem, erit malum alicuius, et non simpliciter. Hominem igitur privari manu, est malum simpliciter: materia autem privari forma aeris, non est malum simpliciter, sed est malum aeris.
<td>And since privations, just as much as habits and forms, are not said to exist, except in the sense that they are in a subject, then if a privation be an evil in relation to the subject in which it is, this will be evil in the unqualified sense. But, otherwise, it will be an evil relative to something, and not in the unqualified sense. Thus, for a man to be deprived of a hand is an unqualified evil, but for matter to be deprived of the form of air is not an unqualified evil, though it is an evil for the air.
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<td>Privatio autem ordinis aut commensurationis debitae in actione, est malum actionis. Et quia cuilibet actioni est debitus aliquis ordo et aliqua commensuratio, necesse est ut talis privatio in actione simpliciter malum existat.
<td>[3] Now, a privation of order, or due harmony, in action is an evil for action. And because there is some due order and harmony for every action, such privation in an action must stand as evil in the unqualified sense.
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<td>His igitur visis, sciendum est quod non omne quod est praeter intentionem, oportet esse fortuitum vel casuale, ut prima ratio proponebat. Si enim quod est praeter intentionem, sit consequens ad id quod est intentum vel semper vel frequenter, non eveniet fortuito vel casualiter: sicut in eo qui intendit dulcedine vini frui, si ex potatione vini sequatur ebrietas, non erit fortuitum nec casuale; esset autem casuale si sequeretur ut in paucioribus.
<td>[4] Having observed these points, we should understand that not everything that is apart from intention is necessarily fortuitous or a matter of chance, as the first argument claimed. For, if that which is apart from intention be either an invariable or a frequent consequence of what is intended, then it does not occur fortuitously or by chance. Take, for example, a man who directs his intention to the enjoyment of the sweetness of wine: if intoxication is the result of drinking the wine, this is neither fortuitous nor a matter of chance. Of course, it would be a matter of chance if this result followed in but few cases.
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<td>Malum ergo corruptionis naturalis, etsi sequatur praeter intentionem generantis, consequitur tamen semper: nam semper formae unius est adiuncta privatio alterius. Unde corruptio non evenit casualiter neque ut in paucioribus: licet privatio quandoque non sit malum simpliciter, sed alicuius, ut dictum est. Si autem sit talis privatio quae privet id quod est debitum generato, erit casuale et simpliciter malum, sicut cum nascuntur partus monstruosi: hoc enim non consequitur de necessitate ad id quod est intentum, sed est ei repugnans; cum agens intendat perfectionem generati.
<td>[5] So the evil of natural corruption, though a result which is apart from the intention of the agent of generation, is nevertheless an invariable consequence, for the acquisition of one form is always accompanied by the privation of another form. Hence, corruption does not occur by chance, nor as something that happens in few cases; even though privation at times is not an unqualified evil, but is only so in relation to some definite thing, as has been said. However, if it be the kind of privation which takes away what is due to the thing generated, this will be by chance and unqualifiedly evil, as in the case of the birth of monsters. For, such a thing is not the necessary result of what is intended; rather, it is repugnant to what is intended, since the agent intends a perfect product of generation.
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<td>Malum autem actionis accidit in naturalibus agentibus ex defectu virtutis activae. Unde si agens habet virtutem defectivam, hoc malum consequitur praeter intentionem, sed non erit casuale, quia de necessitate est consequens ad talem agentem: si tamen tale agens vel semper vel frequenter patitur hunc virtutis defectum. Erit autem casuale si hic defectus raro talem comitatur agentem.
<td>[6] Now, evil in relation to action occurs in the case of natural agents as a result of the defect of an active power. Hence, if the agent has a defective power, the evil is a result apart from the intention, but it will not be a chance result because it follows necessarily from this kind of agent, provided this kind of agent is subject to this defect of power, either always or frequently. However, it will be a matter of chance if this defect is rarely associated with this kind of agent.
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<td>In agentibus autem voluntariis intentio est ad bonum aliquod particulare, si debet sequi actio: nam universalia non movent, sed particularia, in quibus est actus. Si igitur illud bonum quod intenditur, habeat coniunctam privationem boni secundum rationem vel semper vel frequenter, sequitur malum morale non casualiter, sed vel semper vel frequenter: sicut patet in eo qui vult uti femina propter delectationem, cui delectationi adiuncta est inordinatio adulterii; unde malum adulterii non sequitur casualiter. Esset autem casuale malum si ad id quod intendit, sequeretur aliquod peccatum ut in paucioribus: sicut cum quis, proiiciens ad avem, interficit hominem.
<td>[7] In the case of voluntary agents, the intention is directed to some particular good, if action is to result, for universals cause no movement, but particular things do, since actions go on in their area. Therefore, if a particular good that is intended has attached to it, either always or frequently, a privation of good according to reason, then the result is a moral evil; and not by chance, but either invariably or for the most part. This is clearly the case with a man who wills to enjoy a woman for the sake of pleasure, to which pleasure there is attached the disorder of adultery. Hence, the evil of adultery is not something which results by chance. However, it would be an instance of chance evil if some wrong resulted in a few cases from the object intended: for example, in the case of a person who kills a man while shooting at a bird.
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<td>Quod autem huiusmodi bona aliquis intendat ut in pluribus quibus privationes boni secundum rationem consequuntur, ex hoc provenit quod plures vivunt secundum sensum, eo quod sensibilia sunt nobis manifesta, et magis efficaciter moventia in particularibus, in quibus est operatio: ad plura autem talium bonorum sequitur privatio boni secundum rationem.
<td>[8] That a person may frequently direct his intention to goods of this kind, to which privations of good according to reason are consequent, results from the fact that most men live on the sense level, because sensory objects are better known to us, and they are more effective motives in the domain of particular things where action goes on. Now, the privation of good according to reason is the consequence of most goods of this kind.
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<td>Ex quo patet quod, licet malum praeter intentionem sit, est tamen voluntarium, ut secunda ratio proponit, licet non per se, sed per accidens. Intentio enim est ultimi finis, quem quis propter se vult: voluntas autem est eius etiam quod quis vult propter aliud, etiam si simpliciter non vellet; sicut qui proiicit merces in mari causa salutis, non intendit proiectionem mercium, sed salutem, proiectionem autem vult non simpliciter, sed causa salutis. Similiter propter aliquod bonum sensibile consequendum aliquis vult facere inordinatam actionem, non intendens inordinationem, neque volens eam simpliciter, sed propter hoc. Et ideo hoc modo malitia et peccatum dicuntur esse voluntaria, sicut proiectio mercium in mari.
<td>[9] From this it is evident that, though evil be apart from intention, it is nonetheless voluntary, as the second argument suggests, though not essentially but accidentally so. For intention is directed to an ultimate end which a person wills for its own sake, but the will may also be directed to that which a person wills for the sake of something else, even if he would not will it simply for itself. In the example of the man who throws his merchandise into the sea in order to save himself [cf. <i>Ethics</i> III, 1: 1110a 8-29], he does not intend the throwing away of the merchandise but his own safety; yet he wills the throwing not for itself but for the sake of safety. Likewise, a person wills to do a disorderly action for the sake of some sensory good to be attained; he does not intend the disorder, nor does he will it simply for itself, but for the sake of this result. And so, evil consequences and sins are called voluntary in this way, just as is the casting of merchandise into the sea.
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<td>Eodem autem modo patet solutio ad tertiam obiectionem. Nunquam enim invenitur mutatio corruptionis sine mutatione generationis: et per consequens nec finis corruptionis sine fine generationis. Natura ergo non intendit finem corruptionis seorsum a fine generationis, sed simul utrumque. Non enim est de intentione naturae absoluta quod non sit aqua, sed quod sit aer, quo existente non est aqua. Hoc ergo quod est esse aerem, intendit natura secundum se: quod vero est non esse aquam, non intendit nisi inquantum est coniunctum ei quod est esse aerem. Sic igitur privationes a natura non sunt secundum se intentae, sed secundum accidens: formae vero secundum se.
<td>[10] The answer to the third difficulty is similarly evident. Indeed, the change of corruption is never found without the change of generation; neither, as a consequence, is the end of corruption found without the end of generation. So, nature does not intend the end of corruption as separated from the end of generation, but both at once. It is not the unqualified intention of nature that water should not exist, but that there should be air, and while a thing is so existing it is not water. So, nature directly intends that this existing thing be air; it does not intend that this thing should not exist as water, except as a concomitant of the fact that it is to be air. Thus, privations are not intended by nature in themselves, but only accidentally; forms, however, are intended in themselves.
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<td>Patet ergo ex praemissis quod illud quod est simpliciter malum, omnino est praeter intentionem in operibus naturae, sicut partus monstruosi: quod vero non est simpliciter, sed alicui malum, non est intentum a natura secundum se, sed secundum accidens.
<td>[11] It is clear, then, from the foregoing that what is evil in an unqualified sense is completely apart from intention in the workings of nature, as in the birth of monsters; on the other hand, that which is not evil in the unqualified sense, but evil in relation to some definite thing, is not directly intended by nature but only accidentally.
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 7<br>
Quod malum non est aliqua essentia</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 7<br>
THAT EVIL IS NOT AN ESSENCE</b>
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<td>Ex his autem apparet quod nulla essentia est secundum se mala.
<td>[1] From these considerations it becomes evident that no essence is evil in itself.
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<td>Malum enim, ut dictum est, nihil est aliud quam privatio eius quod quis natus est et debet habere: sic enim apud omnes est usus huius nominis malum. Privatio autem non est aliqua essentia, sed est negatio in substantia. Malum igitur non est aliqua essentia in rebus.
<td>[2] In fact, evil is simply a privation of something which a subject is entitled by its origin to possess and which it ought to have, as we have said. Such is the meaning of the word “evil” among all men. Now, privation is not an essence; it is, rather, a negation in a substance. Therefore, evil is not an essence in things.
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<td>Adhuc. Unumquodque secundum suam essentiam habet esse. Inquantum autem habet esse, habet aliquid boni: nam, si bonum est quod omnia appetunt, oportet ipsum esse bonum dicere, cum omnia esse appetant. Secundum hoc igitur unumquodque bonum est quod essentiam habet. Bonum autem et malum opponuntur. Nihil igitur est malum secundum quod essentiam habet. Nulla igitur essentia mala est.
<td>[3] Again, each thing has actual being in accord with its essence. To the extent that it possesses being, it has something good; for, if good is that which all desire, then being itself must be called a good, because all desire to be. As a consequence, then, each thing is good because it possesses actual being. Now, good and evil are contraries. So, nothing is evil by virtue of the fact that it has essence. Therefore, no essence is evil.
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<td>Amplius. Omnis res vel est agens, vel est facta. Malum autem non potest esse agens: quia quicquid agit, agit inquantum est actu existens et perfectum. Et similiter non potest esse factum: nam cuiuslibet generationis terminus est forma et bonum. Nulla igitur res secundum suam essentiam est mala.
<td>[4] Besides, everything is either an agent or a thing that is made. Now, evil cannot be an agent, because whatever acts does so inasmuch as it is actually existent and perfect. Similarly, it cannot be a thing that is made, for the termination of every process of generation is a form, and a good thing. Therefore, nothing is evil by virtue of its essence.
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<td>Item. Nihil tendit ad suum contrarium: unumquodque enim appetit quod est sibi simile et conveniens. Omne autem ens agendo intendit bonum, ut ostensum est. Nullum igitur ens, inquantum huiusmodi, est malum.
<td>[5] Moreover, nothing tends toward its contrary, for each thing inclines to what is like and suitable to itself. Now, every being intends a good, when it is acting, as has been proved. Therefore, no being, as being, is evil.
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<td>Adhuc. Omnis essentia est alicui rei naturalis. Si enim est in genere substantiae, est ipsa natura rei. Si vero sit in genere accidentis, oportet quod ex principiis alicuius substantiae causetur, et sic illi substantiae erit naturalis: licet forte alteri substantiae non sit naturalis, sicut caliditas est naturalis igni, licet sit innaturalis aquae. Quod autem est secundum se malum, non potest esse alicui naturale. De ratione enim mali est privatio eius quod est alicui natum inesse et debitum ei. Malum igitur, cum sit eius quod est naturale privatio, non potest esse alicui naturale. Unde et quicquid naturaliter inest alicui, est ei bonum, et malum si ei desit. Nulla igitur essentia est secundum se mala.
<td>[6] Furthermore, every essence belongs to some definite thing in nature. Indeed, if it falls in the genus of substance, it is the very nature of the thing. However, if it is in the genus of accident, it must be caused by the principles of some substance, and thus it will be natural to this substance, though perhaps it may not be natural to another substance. For example, heat is natural to fire, though it may not be natural to water. Now, what is evil in itself can not be natural to anything. For it is of the very definition of evil that it be a privation of that which is to be in a subject by virtue of its natural origin, and which should be in it. So, evil cannot be natural to any subject, since it is a privation of what is natural. Consequently, whatever is present naturally in something is a good for it, and it is evil if the thing lacks it. Therefore, no essence is evil in itself.
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<td>Amplius. Quicquid habet essentiam aliquam, aut ipsummet est forma, aut habet formam aliquam: per formam enim collocatur unumquodque in genere vel specie. Forma autem, inquantum huiusmodi, habet rationem bonitatis: cum sit principium actionis; et finis quem intendit omne faciens; et actus quo unumquodque habens formam perfectum est. Quicquid igitur habet essentiam aliquam, inquantum huiusmodi, est bonum. Malum igitur non habet essentiam aliquam.
<td>[7] Again, whatever possesses an essence is either a form itself, or has a form. In fact, every being is placed in a genus or species through a form. Now, a form, as such, has the essential character of goodness, because a form is a principle of action; so, too, does the end to which every agent looks; and so also does the action whereby each thing having a form is perfected. Hence, everything that has an essence is, by virtue of that fact, a good thing. Therefore, evil has no essence.
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<td>Item. Ens per actum et potentiam dividitur. Actus autem, inquantum huiusmodi, bonum est: quia secundum quod aliquid est actu, secundum hoc est perfectum. Potentia etiam bonum aliquid est: tendit enim potentia ad actum, ut in quolibet motu apparet; et est etiam actui proportionata, non ei contraria; et est in eodem genere cum actu; et privatio non competit ei nisi per accidens. Omne igitur quod est, quocumque modo sit, inquantum est ens, bonum est. Malum igitur non habet aliquam essentiam.
<td>[8] Besides, being is divided by act and potency. Now, act, as such, is good, for something is perfect to the extent that it is in act. Potency, too, is a good thing, for potency tends toward act, as appears in every instance of change. Moreover, potency is also proportionate to act and not contrary to it. It belongs in the same genus with act; privation does not belong to it, except accidentally. So, everything that exists, whatever the mode of its existence, is a good thing to the extent that it is a being. Therefore, evil does not possess any essence.
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<td>Amplius. Probatum est in secundo huius, quod omne esse, quocumque modo sit, est a Deo. Deum autem esse perfectam bonitatem, in primo ostendimus. Cum igitur boni effectus malum esse non possit, impossibile est aliquod ens, inquantum est ens, esse malum.
<td>[9] Moreover, we have proved in Book Two of this work [15] that every act of being, whatever its type may be, comes from God. And we have shown in Book One [28, 41] that God is perfect goodness. Now, since evil could not be the product of a good thing, it is impossible for any being, as a being, to be evil.
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<td>Hinc est quod Gen. 1-31 dicitur: vidit Deus cuncta quae fecerat, et erant valde bona; et Eccle. 3-11: cuncta fecit bona in tempore suo; et I Tim. 4-4: omnis creatura Dei bona.
<td>[10] This is why Genesis (1:31) states: “God saw all the things that He had made, and they were very good”; and Ecclesiastes (3:11): “He hath made all things good in their time”; and also I Timothy (4:4): “Every creature of God is good.”
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<td>Et Dionysius, cap. IV de Div. Nom., dicit quod malum non est existens, scilicet per se, nec aliquid in existentibus, quasi accidens, sicut albedo vel nigredo.
<td>[11] And Dionysius, in chapter four of <i>On the Divine Names</i> says that “evil is not an existing thing,” that is, in itself; “nor is it something among things that have existence,” but it is a sort of accident, something like whiteness or blackness.
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<td>Per hoc autem excluditur error Manichaeorum, ponentium aliquas res secundum suas naturas esse malas.
<td>[12] Through this consideration, the error of the Manicheans is refuted, for they claimed that some things are evil in their very natures.
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<hr></a> <a name="8" id="8">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 8<br>
Rationes quibus videtur probari quod malum sit natura vel res aliqua (et solutio ipsarum)</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 8<br>
ARGUMENTS WHICH SEEM TO PROVE THAT EVIL IS A NATURE OR SOME REAL THING</b>
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<td>Videtur autem quibusdam rationibus praedictae sententiae posse obviari.
<td>[1] Now, it appears that the preceding view may be opposed by certain arguments.
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<td>Ex propria enim differentia specifica unumquodque speciem sortitur. Malum autem est differentia specifica in aliquibus generibus, scilicet in habitibus et actibus moralibus: sicut enim virtus secundum suam speciem est bonus habitus, ita contrarium vitium est malus habitus secundum suam speciem; et similiter de actibus virtutum et vitiorum. Malum igitur est dans speciem aliquibus rebus. Est igitur aliqua essentia, et aliquibus rebus naturalis.
<td>[2] Each thing is specified by its own specific difference. But evil is a specific difference in some genera; for instance, among habits and acts in the moral order. just as virtue is specifically a good habit, so is the contrary vice specifically a bad habit. The same may be said of virtuous and vicious acts. Therefore, evil is that which gives specificity to some things, and thus it is an essence and is natural to certain things.
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<td>Praeterea. Utrumque contrariorum est natura quaedam: si enim nihil poneret, alterum contrariorum esset privatio vel negatio pura. Sed bonum et malum dicuntur esse contraria. Malum igitur est natura aliqua.
<td>[3] Again, of two contraries, each is a definite nature, for, if one contrary were supposed to be nothing, then it would be either a privation or a pure negation. But good and evil are said to be contraries. Therefore, evil is a nature of some sort.
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<td>Item. Bonum et malum dicuntur esse genera contrariorum ab Aristotele, in praedicamentis. Cuiuslibet autem generis est essentia et natura aliqua: nam non entis non sunt species neque differentiae, et ita quod non est, non potest esse genus. Malum igitur est aliqua essentia et natura.
<td>[4] Besides, good and evil are spoken of by Aristotle in the <i>Categories</i> [8: 14a 24] as “genera of contraries.” Now, there is an essence and a definite nature for each kind of genus. There are no species or differences for non-being; so, that which does not exist cannot be a genus. Therefore, evil is a definite essence and nature.
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<td>Adhuc. Omne quod agit, est res aliqua. Malum autem agit inquantum malum: repugnat enim bono et corrumpit ipsum. Malum igitur, inquantum malum, est res aliqua.
<td>[5] Moreover, everything that acts is a real thing. Now, evil does act precisely as evil, for it attacks the good and corrupts it. So, evil precisely as evil is a real thing.
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<td>Amplius. In quibuscumque invenitur magis et minus, oportet quod sint res aliquae habentes ordinem: negationes enim et privationes non suscipiunt magis et minus. Invenitur autem inter mala unum altero peius. Oportet igitur, ut videtur, quod malum sit res aliqua.
<td>[6] Furthermore, wherever the distinction of more or less is found, there must be certain things arranged in hierarchic order, since neither negations nor privations admit of more or less. But among evils, one may be worse than another. It would seem, then, that evil must be a real thing.
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<td>Praeterea. Res et ens convertuntur. Est autem malum in mundo. Ergo est res aliqua et natura.
<td>[7] Again, thing and being are convertible. There is evil in the world. Therefore, it is a real thing and a nature.
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 9<br></b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 9<br>
ANSWERS TO THESE ARGUMENTS</b>
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<td>Has autem rationes non difficile est solvere. Malum enim et bonum in moralibus specificae differentiae ponuntur, ut prima ratio proponebat, quia moralia a voluntate dependent: secundum hoc enim aliquid ad genus moris pertinet, quod est voluntarium. Voluntatis autem obiectum est finis et bonum. Unde a fine speciem moralia sortiuntur: sicut et naturales actiones a forma principii activi, ut calefactio a calore. Quia igitur bonum et malum dicuntur secundum universalem ordinem ad finem, vel privationem ordinis, oportet quod in moralibus primae differentiae sint bonum et malum. Unius autem generis oportet esse unam mensuram primam. Moralium autem mensura est ratio. Oportet igitur quod a fine rationis dicantur aliqua in moralibus bona vel mala. Quod igitur in moralibus sortitur speciem a fine qui est secundum rationem, dicitur secundum speciem suam bonum: quod vero sortitur speciem a fine contrario fini rationis, dicitur secundum speciem suam malum. Finis autem ille, etsi tollat finem rationis, est tamen aliquod bonum: sicut delectabile secundum sensum, vel aliquid huiusmodi. Unde et in aliquibus animalibus sunt bona; et homini etiam cum sunt secundum rationem moderata; et contingit quod est malum uni, esse bonum alteri. Et ideo nec malum, secundum quod est differentia specifica in genere moralium, importat aliquid quod sit secundum essentiam suam malum: sed aliquid quod secundum se est bonum, malum autem homini, inquantum privat ordinem rationis, quod est hominis bonum.
<td>[1] It is not difficult to answer these arguments. Evil and good are assigned as specific differences in moral matters, as the first argument asserted, because moral matters depend on the will. For this reason, anything that is voluntary belongs in the class of moral matters. Now, the object of the will is the end and the good. Hence, moral matters get their species from the end, just as natural actions are specified by the form of the active principle; for instance, the act of heating is specified by heat. Hence, because good and evil are so termed by virtue of a universal order, or privation of order, to the end, it is necessary in moral matters for the primary distinction to be between good and evil. Now, there must be but one primary standard in any one genus. The standard in moral matters is reason. Therefore, it must be from a rational end that things in the moral area are termed good or evil. So, in moral matters, that which is specified by an end that is in accord with reason is called good specifically; and that which is specified by an end contrary to the rational end is termed evil specifically. Yet that contrary end, even though it runs counter to the rational end, is nevertheless some sort of good: for instance, something that delights on the sense level, or anything like that. Thus, these are goods for certain animals, and even for man, when they are moderated by reason. It also happens that what is evil for one being is good for another. So, evil, as a specific difference in the genus of moral matters, does not imply something that is evil in its own essence, but something that is good in itself, though evil for man, inasmuch as it takes away the order of reason which is the good for man.
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<td>Ex quo etiam patet quod malum et bonum sunt contraria secundum quod in genere moralium accipiuntur: non autem simpliciter accepta, sicut secunda ratio proponebat, sed malum privatio est boni, inquantum est malum.
<td>[2] From this it is also clear that evil and good are contraries according to the way they are understood in the area of moral matters, but they are not when taken without qualification, as the second argument suggested. Rather, in so far as it is evil, evil is the privation of good.
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<td>Eodem etiam modo potest accipi dictum quod malum et bonum, prout sunt in moralibus, sunt genera contrariorum, ex quo tertia ratio procedebat. Omnium enim contrariorum moralium vel utrumque est malum, sicut prodigalitas et illiberalitas; vel unum bonum et alterum malum, sicut liberalitas et illiberalitas. Est igitur malum morale et genus et differentia, non secundum quod est privatio boni rationis, ex quo dicitur malum; sed ex natura actionis vel habitus ordinati ad aliquem finem qui repugnat debito fini rationis; sicut homo caecus est hominis individuum non inquantum est caecus, sed inquantum est hic homo; et irrationale est differentia animalis non propter privationem rationis, sed ratione talis naturae ad quam sequitur remotio rationis.
<td>[3] In the same way, too, one may understand the statement that evil and good, as found in the moral area, are “genera of contraries”—from which phrase the third argument begins. Indeed, in all moral contraries, either both contraries are evil, as in the case of prodigality and illiberality, or one is good and the other evil, as in the case of liberality and illiberality. Therefore, moral evil is both a genus and a difference, not by the fact that it is a privation of the rational good whence it is termed evil, but by the nature of the action or habit ordered to some end that is opposed to the proper rational end. Thus, a blind man is an individual man, not inasmuch as he is blind but in so far as he is this man. So, also, irrational is an animal difference, not because of the privation of reason but by virtue of a certain kind of nature, to which the absence of reason follows as a consequence.
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<td>Potest etiam dici quod Aristoteles dicit malum et bonum esse genera, non secundum propriam opinionem, cum inter prima decem genera, in quorum quolibet invenitur aliqua contrarietas, ea non connumeret; sed secundum opinionem Pythagorae, qui posuit bonum et malum esse prima genera et prima principia, et in utroque eorum posuit esse decem prima contraria: sub bono quidem finitum, par, unum, dextrum, masculinum, quiescens, rectum, lucem, quadratum, et ultimo bonum; sub malo autem, infinitum, impar, plurale, sinistrum, femininum, motum, curvum, tenebras, altera parte longius, et ultimo malum. Sic autem et in pluribus librorum logicorum locis utitur exemplis, secundum sententiam aliorum philosophorum, quasi probabilibus secundum illud tempus.
<td>One can also say that Aristotle calls good and evil genera, not according to his own opinion (for he does not number them among the primary ten genera in which every kind of contrariety is found) but according to the opinion of Pythagoras, who supposed that good and evil are the first genera and first principles, and who placed ten prime contraries under each of them: under the good were, “limit, even, one, right, male, rest, straight, light, square, and finally good”; and under evil were, “the unlimited, odd, multitude, left, female, motion, curved, darkness, oblong, and finally evil [cf. <i>Met.</i> I, 5: 986a 24-27].Thus, here and in several places in the treatises on logic, he uses examples in accord with the views of other philosophers, as if they were more acceptable in his time.
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<td>Habet tamen et hoc dictum aliquam veritatem: nam impossibile est quod probabiliter dicitur, secundum totum esse falsum. Omnium enim contrariorum unum est perfectum, et alterum diminutum, quasi privationem quandam habens admixtam: sicut album et calidum sunt perfecta, frigidum vero et nigrum sunt imperfecta, quasi cum privatione significata. Quia igitur omnis diminutio et privatio ad rationem mali pertinet; omnis autem perfectio et complementum ad rationem boni: semper in contrariis alterum sub bono videtur comprehendi, alterum ad rationem mali accedere. Et secundum hoc bonum et malum genera contrariorum omnium esse videntur.
<td>In fact, this statement has some truth, since it is impossible for a probable statement to be entirely false. In the case of all contraries, one is perfect and the other is a diminished perfection, having, as it were, some privation mixed with it. For instance, white and hot are perfect conditions, but cold and black are imperfect, connoting something of privation. Therefore, since every diminution and privation pertains to the formal character of evil, and every perfection and fulfillment to the formal character of good, it appears to be always so between contraries, that one is included under the good and the other approaches the notion of evil. From this point of view, good and evil seem to be genera of all contraries.
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<td>Per hoc etiam patet qualiter malum repugnat bono, ex quo quarta ratio procedebat. Secundum enim quod formae et fini, quae habent rationem boni, et sunt agendi vera principia, est adiuncta privatio contrariae formae et finis contrarii, actio quae sequitur ex tali forma et tali fine, attribuitur privationi et malo: per accidens quidem, nam privatio, secundum quod huiusmodi, non est alicuius actionis principium. Propter quod bene in IV cap. de Div. Nom., dicit Dyonisius, quod malum non pugnat contra bonum nisi virtute boni, secundum se vero est impotens et infirmum, quasi nullius actionis principium. Malum tamen corrumpere dicitur bonum non solum agendo virtute boni, sicut expositum est: sed formaliter secundum se, sicut dicitur caecitas corrumpere visum quia est ipsa visus corruptio; per quem modum dicitur albedo parietem colorare quia est ipse parietis color.
<td>[4] In this way it also becomes apparent how evil is opposed to the good, which is the starting point of the fourth argument. According as there is added a privation of a contrary form, and a contrary end, to a form and an end (which have the rational character of good and are true principles of action) the action that results from such a form and end is attributed to the privation and the evil. Yet, this attribution is accidental, for privation, as such, is not the principle of any action. Hence, Dionysius says, quite properly, in the fourth chapter of <i>On the Divine Names</i>, that “evil does not fight against good, except through the power of the good; in itself, indeed, it is powerless and weak,” the principle of no action, as it were. However, we say that evil corrupts the good, not only when it acts in virtue of the good, as has been explained, but also formally of itself. Thus, blindness is said to corrupt sight, for it is itself the corruption of sight; similarly, whiteness is said to color a wall, when it is the actual color of the wall.
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<td>Dicitur autem aliquid altero magis et minus malum, per recessum a bono. Sic enim quae privationem important, intenduntur et remittuntur, sicut inaequale et dissimile: dicitur enim inaequalius quod est ab aequalitate magis distans; et similiter dissimilius magis a similitudine recedens. Unde et magis malum dicitur quod est magis privatum bono, quasi magis a bono distans. Privationes autem intenduntur non quasi aliquam essentiam habentes, sicut qualitates et formae, ut quinta ratio procedebat, sed per augmentum causae privantis: sicut aer tenebrosior est quanto plura fuerint interposita obstacula lucis, sic enim longius a lucis participatione distat.
<td>[5] We do indeed say that something is more or less evil than another thing, in reference to the good that it lacks. Thus, things which imply a privation admit of increase or decrease in degree, as do the unequal and the dissimilar. For we say that something is more unequal when it is more removed from equality and, likewise, that something is more dissimilar when it is farther away from similitude. Consequently, a thing that is more deprived of goodness is said to be more evil, as it were, more distant from the good. However, privations do not increase as do things that have an essence, such as qualities and forms, as the fifth argument assumes, but through increase of the depriving cause. Thus, just as the air is darker when more obstacles have been placed before the light, so does a thing become farther removed from participation in the light.
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<td>Dicitur etiam malum esse in mundo, non quasi essentiam aliquam habeat, vel res quaedam existat, ut sexta ratio procedebat: sed ea ratione qua dicitur quod res aliqua mala est ipso malo; sicut caecitas et quaelibet privatio esse dicitur quia animal caecitate est caecum. Ens enim dupliciter dicitur, ut philosophus in metaphysica docet. Uno modo, secundum quod significat essentiam rei, et dividitur per decem praedicamenta: et sic nulla privatio potest dici ens. Alio modo, secundum quod significat veritatem compositionis: et sic malum et privatio dicitur ens, inquantum privatione dicitur aliquid esse privatum.
<td>[6] We also say that evil is in the world, not as possessing some essence, nor as a definitely existing thing, as the sixth argument suggested, but for the same reason that we may call something evil by virtue of its evil. For instance, blindness, or any other sort of privation, is said to exist because an animal is blinded by its blindness. Indeed, there are two ways of talking about being, as the Philosopher teaches in his <i>Metaphysics</i> [IV, 7: 1017a 8]. In one way, being means the essence of a thing, and thus it falls into the ten categories; so taken, no privation can be called a being. In another way, being means the truth in a judgment; in this meaning, privation is called a being, inasmuch as something is said to be deprived by virtue of a privation.
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<hr></a> <a name="10" id="10">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 10<br>
Quod causa mali est bonum</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 10<br>
THAT GOOD IS THE CAUSE OF EVIL</b>
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<td>Ex praemissis autem concludi potest quod malum non causatur nisi a bono.
<td>[1] The foregoing arguments enable us to conclude that evil is caused only by the good.
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<td>Si enim alicuius mali est causa malum; malum autem non agit nisi virtute boni, ut probatum est: oportet ipsum bonum esse causam primariam mali.
<td>[2] For, if an evil thing were the cause of a certain evil, then the evil thing would not act, except by virtue of the good, as has been proved. So, this good must be the primary cause of the evil.
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<td>Adhuc. Quod non est, nullius est causa. Omnem igitur causam oportet esse ens aliquod. Malum autem non est ens aliquod, ut probatum est. Malum igitur non potest esse alicuius causa. Oportet igitur si ab aliquo causetur malum, quod illud sit bonum.
<td>[3] Again, what does not exist is not the cause of anything. So, every cause must be a definite thing. But evil is not a definite being, as has been proved. Therefore, evil cannot be the cause of anything. if, then, evil be caused by anything, this cause must be the good.
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<td>Item. Quicquid est proprie et per se alicuius causa, tendit in proprium effectum. Si igitur malum esset per se alicuius causa, tenderet in proprium effectum, scilicet malum. Hoc autem est falsum: nam ostensum est quod omne agens intendit bonum. Malum igitur per se non est causa alicuius, sed solum per accidens. Omnis autem causa per accidens reducitur ad causam per se. Solum autem bonum potest esse per se causa, sed malum non potest esse per se causa. Malum igitur causatum est a bono.
<td>[4] Besides, whatever is properly and of itself the cause of something tends toward a proper effect. So, if evil were of itself the cause of anything, it would tend toward an effect proper to it; namely, evil. But this is false, for it has been shown that every agent tends toward the good. Therefore, evil is not the cause of anything through evil itself, but only accidentally. Now, every accidental cause reduces to a cause that works through itself. And only the good can be a cause through itself, for evil cannot be a cause through itself. Therefore, evil is caused by the good.
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<td>Praeterea. Omnis causa vel est materia, vel forma, vel agens, vel finis. Malum autem non potest esse neque materia neque forma: ostensum est enim supra quod tam ens actu, quam ens in potentia, est bonum. Similiter non potest esse agens: cum unumquodque agat secundum quod est actu et formam habet. Neque etiam potest esse finis: cum sit praeter intentionem, ut probatum est. Malum igitur non potest esse alicuius causa. Si igitur aliquid sit causa mali, oportet quod sit a bono causatum.
<td>[5] Moreover, every cause is either matter, or form, or agent, or end. Now, evil cannot be either matter or form, for it has been shown that both being in act and being in potency are good. Similarly, evil cannot be the agent, since anything that acts does so according as it is in act and has form. Nor, indeed, can it be an end, for it is apart from intention, as we have proved. So. evil cannot be the cause of anything. Therefore, if anything is the cause of evil, it must be caused by the good.
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<td>Cum autem malum et bonum sint opposita; unum autem oppositorum non potest esse causa alterius nisi per accidens, sicut frigidum calefacit, ut dicitur in VIII physicorum: sequitur quod bonum non possit esse causa activa mali nisi per accidens.
<td>[6] In fact, since evil and good are contraries, one of these contraries cannot be the cause of the other unless it be accidentally; as the cold heats, as is said in <i>Physics VIII</i> [1: 251a 33]. Consequently, the good could not be the active cause of evil, except accidentally.
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<td>Hoc autem accidens in naturalibus potest esse et ex parte agentis; et ex parte effectus. Ex parte quidem agentis, sicut cum agens patitur defectum virtutis, ex quo sequitur quod actio sit defectiva et effectus deficiens: ut, cum virtus membri digerentis est debilis, sequitur imperfecta decoctio et humor indigestus, quae sunt quaedam mala naturae. Accidit autem agenti, inquantum est agens, quod virtutis defectum patiatur: non enim agit secundum quod deficit ei virtus, sed secundum quod habet aliquid de virtute; si enim penitus virtute careret, omnino non ageret. Sic igitur malum causatur per accidens ex parte agentis, inquantum agens est deficientis virtutis. Propter quod dicitur quod malum non habet causam efficientem, sed deficientem: quia malum non sequitur ex causa agente nisi inquantum est deficientis virtutis, et secundum hoc non est efficiens. In idem autem redit si defectus actionis et effectus proveniat ex defectu instrumenti, vel cuiuscumque alterius quod requiritur ad actionem agentis, sicut cum virtus motiva producit claudicationem propter tibiae curvitatem: utroque enim agens agit, et virtute et instrumento.
<td>[7] Now, in the order of nature, this accidental aspect can be found either on the side of the agent or of the effect. It will be on the side of the agent when the agent suffers a defect in its power, the consequence of which is a defective action and a defective effect. Thus, when the power of an organ of digestion is weak, imperfect digestive functioning and undigested humor result; these are evils of nature. Now, it is accidental to the agent, as agent, for it to suffer a defect in its power; for it is not an agent by virtue of the fact that its power is deficient, but because it possesses some power. If it were completely lacking in power, it would not act at all. Thus, evil is caused accidentally on the part of the agent in so far as the agent is defective in its power. This is why we say that “evil has no efficient, but only a deficient, cause,” for evil does not result from an agent cause, unless because it is deficient in power, and to that extent it is not efficient.—And it reduces to the same thing if the defect in the action and in the effect arise from a defect of the instrument or of anything else required for the agent’s action; for example, when the motor capacity produces lameness because of a curvature of the tibia. For the agent acts both by means of its power and of its instrument.
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<td>Ex parte vero effectus, malum ex bono causatur per accidens, tum ex parte materiae effectus; tum ex parte formae ipsius. Si enim materia sit indisposita ad recipiendam impressionem agentis, necesse est defectum sequi in effectu: sicut cum monstruosi partus sequuntur propter materiae indigestionem. Nec hoc imputatur ad aliquem defectum agentis, si materiam indispositam non transmutat ad actum perfectum: unicuique enim agenti naturali est virtus determinata secundum modum suae naturae, quam si non excedat, non propter hoc erit deficiens in virtute, sed tunc solum quando deficit a mensura virtutis sibi debitae per naturam.
<td>[8] On the side of the effect, evil is accidentally caused by the good, either by virtue of the matter of the effect, or by virtue of its form. For, if the matter is not well disposed to the reception of the agent’s action on it, there must result a defect in the product. Thus, the births of monsters are the result of lack of assimilation on the part of the matter. Nor may this be attributed to some defect in the agent, if it fail to convert poorly disposed matter into perfect act. There is a determinate power for each natural agent, in accord with its type of nature, and failure to go beyond this power will not be a deficiency in power; such deficiency is found only when it falls short of the measure of power naturally due it.
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<td>Ex parte autem formae effectus, per accidens malum incidit inquantum formae alicui de necessitate adiungitur privatio alterius formae, unde simul cum generatione unius rei, necesse est alterius rei sequi corruptionem. Sed hoc malum non est malum effectus intenti ab agente, sicut in praecedentibus patet, sed alterius rei.
<td>[9] From the point of view of the form of the effect, evil occurs accidentally because the privation of another form is the necessary concomitant of the presence of a given form. Thus, simultaneously with the generation of one thing there necessarily results the corruption of another thing. But this evil is not an evil of the product intended by the agent, but of another thing, as was apparent in the preceding discussion.
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<td>Sic igitur in naturalibus patet quod malum per accidens tantum causatur a bono. Eodem autem modo et in artificialibus accidit. Ars enim in sua operatione imitatur naturam, et similiter peccatum in utraque invenitur.
<td>[10] Thus it is clear that, in the natural order, evil is only accidentally caused by the good. Now, it works in the same way in the realm of artifacts. “For art in its working imitates nature,” and bad results occur in both in the same way.
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<td>In moralibus autem videtur aliter se habere. Non enim ex defectu virtutis sequi videtur morale vitium: cum infirmitas virtutis morale vitium vel totaliter tollat, vel saltem diminuat; infirmitas enim non meretur poenam, quae culpae debetur, sed magis misericordiam et ignoscentiam; voluntarium enim oportet esse moris vitium, non necessarium. Si tamen diligenter consideretur, invenitur quantum ad aliquid simile, quantum vero ad aliquid dissimile. Dissimile quidem quantum ad hoc, quod vitium morale in sola actione consideratur, non autem in aliquo effectu producto: nam virtutes morales non sunt factivae, sed activae. Artes autem factivae sunt: et ideo dictum est quod in eis similiter peccatum accidit sicut in natura. Malum igitur morale non consideratur ex materia vel forma effectus, sed solum consequitur ex agente.
<td>[11] However, in the moral order, the situation seems to be different. It does not appear that moral vice results from a defect of power, since weakness either completely removes moral fault, or at least diminishes it. Indeed, weakness does not merit moral punishment that is proper to guilt, but, rather, mercy and forgiveness. A moral fault must be voluntary, not necessitated. Yet, if we consider the matter carefully, we shall find the two orders similar from one point of view, and dissimilar from another. There is dissimilarity on this point: moral fault is noticed in action only, and not in any effect that is produced; for the moral virtues are not concerned with making but with doing. The arts are concerned with making, and so it has been said that in their sphere a bad result happens just as it does in nature Therefore, moral evil is not considered in relation to the matter or form of the effect, but only as a resultant from the agent.
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<td>In actionibus autem moralibus inveniuntur per ordinem quatuor activa principia. Quorum unum est virtus executiva, scilicet vis motiva, qua moventur membra ad exequendum imperium voluntatis. Unde haec vis a voluntate movetur, quae est aliud principium. Voluntas vero movetur ex iudicio virtutis apprehensivae, quae iudicat hoc esse bonum vel malum, quae sunt voluntatis obiecta, unum ad prosequendum movens, aliud ad fugiendum. Ipsa autem vis apprehensiva movetur a re apprehensa. Primum igitur activum principium in actionibus moralibus est res apprehensa; secundum vis apprehensiva; tertium voluntas; quartum vis motiva, quae exequitur imperium rationis.
<td>[12] Now, in moral actions we find four principles arranged in a definite order. One of these is the executive power, the moving force, whereby the parts of the body are moved to carry out the command of the will. Then this power is moved by the will, which is a second principle. Next, the will is moved by the judgment of the apprehensive power which judges that this object is good or bad, for the objects of the will are such that one moves toward attainment, another moves toward avoidance. This apprehensive power is moved, in turn, by the thing apprehended. So, the first active principle in moral actions is the thing that is cognitively apprehended, the second is the apprehensive power, the third is the will, and the fourth is the motive power which carries out the command of reason.
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<td>Actus autem virtutis exequentis iam praesupponit bonum vel malum morale. Non enim ad mores huiusmodi actus exteriores pertinent nisi secundum quod sunt voluntarii. Unde, si voluntatis sit actus bonus, et actus exterior bonus dicetur: malus autem, si ille sit malus. Nihil autem ad malitiam moralem pertineret si actus exterior deficiens esset defectu ad voluntatem non pertinente: claudicatio enim non est vitium moris, sed naturae. Huiusmodi igitur virtutis exequentis defectus moris vitium vel totaliter excusat, vel minuit. Actus vero quo res movet apprehensivam virtutem, immunis est a vitio moris: movet enim secundum ordinem naturalem visibile visum, et quodlibet obiectum potentiam passivam. Ipse etiam actus apprehensivae virtutis, in se consideratus, morali vitio caret: cum eius defectus vitium morale vel excuset vel minuat, sicut et defectus exequentis virtutis; pariter enim infirmitas et ignorantia excusant peccatum vel minuunt. Relinquitur igitur quod morale vitium in solo actu voluntatis primo et principaliter inveniatur: et rationabiliter etiam ex hoc actus moralis dicatur, quia voluntarius est. In actu igitur voluntatis quaerenda est radix et origo peccati moralis.
<td>[13] Now, the act of the power that carries out the action already presupposes the distinction of moral good or evil. For external acts of this kind do not belong in the moral area, unless they are voluntary. Hence, if the act of the will be good, then the external act is also deemed good, but if it be bad, the external act is bad. It would have nothing to do with moral evil if the external act were defective by virtue of a defect having no reference to the will. Lameness, for instance, is not a fault in the moral order, but in the natural order. Therefore, a defect of this type in the executive power either completely excludes moral fault, or diminishes it. So, too, the act whereby a thing moves the apprehensive power is free from moral fault, for the visible thing moves the power of sight in the natural order, and so, also, does any object move a passive potency. Then, too, this act of the apprehensive power, considered in itself, is without moral fault, for a defect in it either removes or diminishes moral fault, as is the case in a defect of the executive power. Likewise, weakness and ignorance excuse wrongdoing, or diminish it. The conclusion follows, then, that moral fault is found primarily and principally in the act of the will only, and so it is quite reasonable to say, as a result, that an act is moral because it is voluntary. Therefore the root and source of moral wrongdoing is to be sought in the act of the will.
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<td>Videtur autem hanc inquisitionem consequi difficultas. Cum enim actus deficiens proveniat propter defectum activi principii, oportet praeintelligere defectum in voluntate ante peccatum morale. Qui quidem defectus si sit naturalis, semper inhaeret voluntati: semper igitur voluntas in agendo moraliter peccabit; quod actus virtutum falsum esse ostendunt. Si autem defectus sit voluntarius, iam est peccatum morale, cuius causa iterum inquirenda restabit: et sic ratio in infinitum deducet. Oportet ergo dicere quod defectus in voluntate praeexistens non sit naturalis, ne sequatur voluntatem in quolibet actu peccare; neque etiam casualis et fortuitus, non enim esset in nobis morale peccatum, casualia enim sunt impraemeditata et extra rationem. Est igitur voluntarius. Non tamen peccatum morale: ne cogamur in infinitum procedere. Quod quidem qualiter esse possit, considerandum est.
<td>[14] However, a difficulty seems to result from this investigation. Since a defective act stems from a defect in the active principle, we must understand that there is a defect in the will preceding the moral fault. Of course, if this defect be natural, then it is always attached to the will, and so the will would always commit a morally bad action when it acts. But virtuous acts show that this conclusion is false. On the other hand, if the defect be voluntary, it is already a morally bad act, and we will have to look in turn for its cause. Thus, our rational investigation will never come to an end. Therefore, we must say that the defect pre-existing in the will is not natural, to avoid the conclusion that the will sins in everyone of its acts. Nor can we attribute the defect to chance or accident, for then there would be no moral fault in us, since chance events are not premeditated and are beyond the control of reason. So, the defect is voluntary. Yet, it is not a moral fault; otherwise, we should go on to infinity. How this is possible we must now explain.
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<td>Cuiuslibet siquidem activi principii perfectio virtutis ex superiori activo dependet: agens enim secundum agit per virtutem primi agentis. Cum igitur secundum agens manet sub ordine primi agentis, indeficienter agit: deficit autem in agendo si contingat ipsum ab ordine primi agentis deflecti; sicut patet in instrumento cum deficit a motu agentis. Dictum est autem quod in ordine actionum moralium duo principia voluntatem praecedunt: scilicet vis apprehensiva; et obiectum apprehensum, quod est finis. Cum autem unicuique mobili respondeat proprium motivum, non quaelibet vis apprehensiva est debitum motivum cuiuslibet appetitus, sed huius haec, et illius alia. Sicut igitur appetitus sensitivi proprium motivum est vis apprehensiva sensualis, ita voluntatis proprium motivum est ratio ipsa.
<td>[15] As a matter of fact, the perfection of the power of every active principle depends on a higher active principle, since a secondary agent acts through the power of a primary agent. While, therefore, a secondary agent remains in a position of subordination to the first agent, it acts without any defect, but it becomes defective in its action if it happens to turn away from its subordination to the primary agent, as is illustrated in the case of an instrument, when it falls short of the motion of the agent. Now, it has been said that two principles precede the will in the order of moral actions: namely, the apprehensive power, and the object apprehended, which is the end. Since to each movable there corresponds a proper motive power, not merely any apprehensive power is the suitable motive power for any and every appetite; rather, one pertains to this appetite and another to a second appetite. Thus, just as the proper motive power for the sensory appetite is the sensory apprehensive power, so the reason itself is the proper motivator for the will.
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<td>Rursus, cum ratio multa bona et multos fines apprehendere possit; cuiuslibet autem sit proprius finis: et voluntatis erit finis et primum motivum, non bonum quodlibet, sed bonum quoddam determinatum. Cum igitur voluntas tendit in actum mota ex apprehensione rationis repraesentantis sibi proprium bonum, sequitur debita actio. Cum autem voluntas in actionem prorumpit ad apprehensionem apprehensivae sensualis; vel ipsius rationis aliquod aliud bonum repraesentantis a proprio bono diversum; sequitur in actione voluntatis peccatum morale.
<td>[16] Again, since reason is able to apprehend many goods and a multiplicity of ends, and since for each thing there is a proper end, there will be, then, for the will an end and a first motivating object which is not merely any good, but some determinate good. Hence, when the will inclines to act as moved by the apprehension of reason, presenting a proper good to it, the result is a fitting action. But when the will breaks forth into action, at the apprehension of sense cognition, or of reason itself presenting some other good at variance with its proper good, the result in the action of the will is a moral fault.
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<td>Praecedit igitur in voluntate peccatum actionis defectus ordinis ad rationem; et ad proprium finem. Ad rationem quidem, sicut cum, ad subitam apprehensionem sensus, voluntas in bonum delectabile secundum sensum tendit. Ad finem vero debitum, sicut cum ratio in aliquod bonum ratiocinando devenit quod non est, vel nunc vel hoc modo, bonum, et tamen voluntas in illud tendit quasi in proprium bonum. Hic autem ordinis defectus voluntarius est: nam in potestate ipsius voluntatis est velle et non velle. Itemque est in potestate ipsius quod ratio actu consideret, vel a consideratione desistat; aut quod hoc vel illud consideret. Nec tamen iste defectus est malum morale: si enim ratio nihil consideret, vel consideret bonum quodcumque, nondum est peccatum, quousque voluntas in finem indebitum tendat. Quod iam est voluntatis actus.
<td>[17] Hence, a defect of ordering to reason and to a proper end precedes a fault of action in the will: in regard to reason, in the case of the will inclining, on the occasion of a sudden sense apprehension, toward a good that is on the level of sensory pleasure; and in regard to a proper end, in the case when reason encounters in its deliberation some good which is not, at this time or under these conditions, really good, and yet the will inclines toward it, as if it were a proper good. Now, this defect in ordering is voluntary, for to will and not to will lie within the power of the will itself. And it is also within its power for reason to make an actual consideration, or to abstain from such a consideration, or further to consider this or that alternative. Yet, such a defect of ordering is not a moral evil, for, if reason considers nothing, or considers any good whatever, that is still not a sin until the will inclines to an unsuitable end. At this point, the act of will occurs.
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<td>Sic igitur tam in naturalibus quam in moralibus patet quod malum a bono non causatur nisi per accidens.
<td>[18] Thus, it is,car, both in the natural order and in the moral order, that evil is only caused by good accidentally.
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<hr></a> <a name="11" id="11">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 11<br>
Quod malum fundatur in bono</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 11<br>
THAT EVIL IS BASED ON THE GOOD</b>
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<td>Ex praemissis etiam ostendi potest quod omne malum est in aliquo bono fundatum.
<td>[1] It can also be shown from the preceding considerations that every evil is based on some good.
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<td>Malum enim non potest esse per se existens: cum non sit essentiam habens, ut supra ostensum est. Oportet igitur quod malum sit in aliquo subiecto. Omne autem subiectum, cum sit substantia quaedam, bonum quoddam est, ut ex praemissis patet. Omne igitur malum in bono aliquo est.
<td>[2] Indeed, evil cannot exist by itself, since it has no essence, as we have demonstrated. Therefore, evil must be in some subject. Now, every subject, because it is some sort of substance, is a good of some kind, as is clear from the foregoing. So, every evil is in a good thing.
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<td>Adhuc. Malum privatio quaedam est, ut ex praemissis patet. Privatio autem et forma privata in eodem subiecto sunt. Subiectum autem formae est ens in potentia ad formam, quod bonum est: nam in eodem genere sunt potentia et actus. Privatio igitur, quae malum est, est in bono aliquo sicut in subiecto.
<td>[3] Again, evil is a certain privation, as is evident from the foregoing. Now, privation and the form that is deprived are in the same subject. But the subject of form is being in potency to form, and such being is good, because potency and act belong in the same genus. Therefore, the privation which is evil is present in a good thing, as in a subject.
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<td>Amplius. Ex hoc dicitur aliquid malum, quia nocet. Non autem nisi quia nocet bono: nocere enim malo bonum est, cum corruptio mali sit bona. Non autem noceret, formaliter loquendo, bono, nisi esset in bono: sic enim caecitas homini nocet inquantum in ipso est. Oportet igitur quod malum sit in bono.
<td>[4] Besides, something is called evil due to the fact that it causes injury. But this is only so because it injures the good, for to injure the evil is a good thing, since the corruption of evil is good. Now, formally speaking, it would not injure the good unless it were in the good; thus, blindness injures a man to the extent that it is in him. So, evil must be in the good.
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<td>Item. Malum non causatur nisi a bono, et per accidens tantum. Omne autem quod est per accidens, reducitur ad id quod est per se. Oportet igitur semper cum malo causato, quod est effectus boni per accidens, esse bonum aliquod quod est effectus boni per se, ita quod sit fundamentum eius: nam quod est per accidens, fundatur supra id quod est per se.
<td>[5] Moreover, evil is not caused, except by the good, and then only accidentally. But everything that occurs accidentally is reducible to that which is by itself. So, with a caused evil which is the accidental effect of the good, there must always be some good which is the direct effect of the good as such, and thus this good effect is the foundation of the evil. For what exists accidentally is based on that which exists by itself.
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<td>Sed cum bonum et malum sint opposita; unum autem oppositorum non possit esse alterius subiectum, sed expellat ipsum: videbitur alicui primo aspectu esse inconveniens si bonum subiectum mali esse dicatur.
<td>[6] However, since good and evil are contraries, one of these contraries cannot be the subject for the other; rather, it excludes the other. It will seem to someone, at first glance, that it is improper to say that good is the subject of evil.
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<td>Non est autem inconveniens, si veritas perquiratur. Nam bonum communiter dicitur sicut et ens: cum omne ens, inquantum huiusmodi, sit bonum, ut probatum est. Non est autem inconveniens ut non ens sit in ente sicut in subiecto: privatio enim quaelibet est non ens, et tamen subiectum eius est substantia, quae est ens aliquod. Non tamen non ens est in ente sibi opposito sicut in subiecto. Caecitas enim non est non ens universale, sed non ens hoc, quo scilicet tollitur visus: non est igitur in visu sicut in subiecto, sed in animali. Similiter autem malum non est sicut in subiecto in bono sibi opposito, sed hoc per malum tollitur: sed in aliquo alio bono; sicut malum moris est in bono naturae; malum autem naturae, quod est privatio formae, est in materia, quae est bonum sicut ens in potentia.
<td>[7] Yet it is not improper, provided the truth be investigated to its limit. Good is spoken of in just as general a way as being, since every being, as such, is good, as we have proved. Now, it is not improper for non-being to be present in being, as in a subject. Indeed, any instance of privation is a non-being, yet its subject is a substance which is a being. However, non-being is not present in a being contrary to it, as in a subject. For blindness is not universal non-being, but, rather, this particular non-being whereby sight is taken away. So, it is not present in the power of sight as its subject, but, rather, in the animal. Likewise, evil is not present in a good contrary to it, as in its subject; rather, this contrary good is taken away by the evil. For instance, moral evil is present in a natural good, while a natural evil, which is a privation of form, is present in matter which is a good, in the sense of a being in potency.
</table>
<hr></a> <a name="12" id="12">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 12<br>
Quod malum non totaliter consumit bonum</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 12<br>
THAT EVIL DOES NOT WHOLLY DESTROY GOOD</b>
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<td>Patet autem ex praedictis quod, quantumcumque multiplicetur malum, nunquam potest totum bonum consumere.
<td>[1] It is evident from the foregoing explanation that, no matter how much evil be multiplied, it can never destroy the good wholly.
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<td>Semper enim oportet quod remaneat mali subiectum, si malum remanet. Subiectum autem mali est bonum. Manet igitur semper bonum.
<td>[2] In fact, there must always continue to be a subject for evil, if evil is to endure. Of course, the subject of evil is the good, and so the good will always endure.
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<td>Sed cum contingat malum in infinitum intendi; semper autem per intensionem mali minuatur bonum: videtur in infinitum per malum diminui bonum. Bonum autem quod per malum diminui potest, oportet esse finitum: nam infinitum bonum non est capax mali, ut in primo libro ostensum est. Videtur igitur quod quandoque totum tollatur bonum per malum: nam si ex finito aliquid infinities tollatur, oportet illud quandoque per ablationem consumi.
<td>[3] Yet, because it is possible for evil to increase without limit, and because good is always decreased as evil increases, it appears that the good may be infinitely decreased by evil. Now, the good that can be decreased by evil must be finite, for the infinite good does not admit of evil, as we showed in Book One [39]. So, it seems that eventually the good would be wholly destroyed by evil, for, if something be subtracted an infinite number of times from a finite thing, the latter must be destroyed eventually by the subtraction.
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<td>Non autem potest dici, ut dicunt quidam, quod sequens ablatio, secundum eandem proportionem facta qua et prior, in infinitum procedens, bonum non possit consumere, sicut in continui divisione contingit: nam si ex bicubitali linea dimidium subtraxeris, itemque ex residuo dimidium, et sic in infinitum procedas, semper aliquid adhuc dividendum remanebit. Sed tamen in hoc divisionis processu semper posterius subtractum oportet esse minus secundum quantitatem: dimidium enim totius, quod prius subtrahebatur, maius est secundum quantitatem absolutam quam dimidium dimidii, licet eadem proportio maneat. Hoc autem in diminutione qua bonum per malum diminuitur, nequaquam potest accidere. Nam quanto bonum magis per malum fuerit diminutum, erit infirmius: et sic per secundum malum magis diminui poterit. Rursusque malum sequens contingit esse aequale, vel maius priore: unde non semper secundo subtrahetur a bono per malum minor boni quantitas, proportione servata eadem.
<td>[4] Now, it cannot be answered, as some people say, that if the subsequent subtraction be made in the same proportion as the preceding one, going on to infinity, it is not possible to destroy the good, as happens in the division of a continuum. For, if you subtract half of a line two cubits long, and then half of the remainder, and if you go on in this way to infinity, something will always remain to be divided. But, in this process of division, that which is subtracted later must always be quantitatively diminished. In fact, the half of the whole is quantitatively greater than half of the half, though the same proportion continues. This, however, cannot in any sense happen in the decreasing of good by evil, for the more the good would be decreased by evil the weaker would it become, and so, more open to diminution by subsequent evil. On the contrary, the later evil could be equal to, or greater than, the earlier evil; hence a proportionately smaller quantity of good would not always be subtracted by evil from the good in subsequent cases.
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<td>Est igitur aliter dicendum. Ex praemissis enim manifestum est quod malum totaliter bonum cui oppositum est tollit, sicut caecitas visum: oportet autem quod remaneat bonum quod est mali subiectum. Quod quidem, inquantum subiectum est, habet rationem boni, secundum quod est potentia ad actum boni quod privatur per malum. Quanto igitur minus fuerit in potentia ad illud bonum, tanto minus erit bonum. Subiectum autem fit minus potentia ad formam, non quidem per solam subtractionem alicuius partis subiecti; neque per hoc quod aliqua pars potentiae subtrahatur; sed per hoc quod potentia impeditur per contrarium actum ne in actum formae exire possit, sicut subiectum tanto est minus potentia frigidum, quanto in eo magis calor augetur. Diminuitur igitur bonum per malum magis apponendo contrarium quam de bono aliquid subtrahendo: quod etiam convenit his quae sunt dicta de malo. Diximus enim quod malum incidit praeter intentionem agentis, quod semper intendit aliquod bonum, ad quod sequitur exclusio alterius boni, quod est ei oppositum. Quanto igitur illud bonum intentum ad quod praeter intentionem agentis sequitur malum, magis multiplicatur, tanto potentia ad bonum contrarium diminuitur magis: et sic magis per malum dicitur diminui bonum.
<td>[5] So, another sort of answer must be given. It is evident from what has been said that evil does take away completely the good which is its contrary, as blindness does with sight. Yet there must remain the good which is the subject of evil. This, in fact, inasmuch as it is a subject, has the essential character of goodness, in the sense that it is in potency to the act of goodness which is lacking due to the evil. So, the less it is in potency to this good, the less will it be a good. Now, a subject becomes less potential to a form, not simply by the subtraction of any of its parts, nor by the fact that any part of the potency is subtracted, but by the fact that the potency is impeded by a contrary act from being able to proceed to he actuality of the form. For example, a subject is less potential in regard to cold to the extent that heat is increased in it. Therefore, the good is diminished by evil more as a result of the addition of its contrary than by the subtraction of some of its goodness. This is also in agreement with the things that have been said about evil. Indeed, we said that evil occurs apart from the intention of the agent, and that he always intends a definite good, and that it consequently implies the exclusion of another good which is contrary to it. So, the more this intended good (which apart from the agent’s intention results in evil) is multiplied, the more is the potency to the contrary good diminished. And this is rather the way in which the good is said to be diminished by evil.
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<td>Haec autem diminutio boni per malum non potest in naturalibus in infinitum procedere. Nam formae naturales et virtutes omnes terminatae sunt, et perveniunt ad aliquem terminum ultra quem porrigi non possunt. Non potest igitur neque forma aliqua contraria, neque virtus contrarii agentis in infinitum augeri, ut ex hoc sequatur in infinitum diminutio boni per malum.
<td>[6] Now, in the natural order, this diminution of the good by evil cannot proceed to infinity. All natural forms and powers are limited, and they reach some limit beyond which they cannot extend. So, it is not possible for any contrary form, or any power of a contrary agent, to be increased to infinity, in such a way that the result would be an infinite diminution of good by evil.
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<td>In moralibus autem potest ista diminutio in infinitum procedere. Nam intellectus et voluntas in suis actibus terminos non habent. Potest enim intellectus intelligendo in infinitum procedere: unde mathematicae numerorum species et figurarum infinitae dicuntur. Et similiter voluntas in volendo in infinitum procedit: qui enim vult furtum committere, potest iterum velle illud committere, et sic in infinitum. Quanto autem voluntas magis in fines indebitos tendit, tanto difficilius redit ad proprium et debitum finem: quod patet in his in quibus per peccandi consuetudinem iam est habitus vitiorum inductus. In infinitum igitur per malum moris bonum naturalis aptitudinis diminui potest. Nunquam tamen totaliter tolletur, sed semper naturam remanentem comitatur.
<td>[7] However, in the moral order, this diminution can proceed to infinity. For the intellect and the will have no limits to their acts. The intellect is able to go on to infinity in its act of understanding; this is why the mathematical species of numbers and figures are called infinite. Likewise, the will proceeds to infinity in its act of willing: a man who wills to commit a theft can will again to commit it, and so on to infinity. Indeed, the more the will tends toward unworthy ends, the greater is its difficulty in returning to a proper and worthy end. This is evident in he case of people in whom vicious habits have developed already, as a result of their growing accustomed to sinning. Therefore, the good of natural aptitude can be infinitely decreased by moral evil. Yet, it will never be wholly destroyed; rather, it will always accompany the nature that endures.
</table>
<hr></a> <a name="13" id="13">
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Caput 13<br>
Quod malum habet aliquo modo causam</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 13<br>
THAT EVIL HAS A CAUSE OF SOME SORT</b>
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<td>Ex praedictis autem ostendi potest quod, etsi malum non habeat causam per se, cuiuslibet tamen mali oportet esse causam per accidens.
<td>[1] From what has been said above it can be shown that, though evil has no direct cause of itself, still there must be an accidental cause for every evil.
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<td>Quicquid enim est in aliquo ut in subiecto, oportet quod habeat aliquam causam: causatur enim vel ex subiecti principiis, vel ex aliqua extrinseca causa. Malum autem est in bono sicut in subiecto, ut ostensum est. Oportet igitur quod malum habeat causam.
<td>[2] Whatever exists in another thing as in its subject must have some cause, for it is caused either by the principles of the subject or by some extrinsic cause. Now, evil is in the good as in a subject, as has been indicated, and so it is necessary for evil to have a cause.
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<td>Item. Quod est in potentia ad utrumque oppositorum, non constituitur in actu alicuius eorum nisi per aliquam causam: nulla enim potentia facit se esse in actu. Malum autem est privatio eius quod quis natus est et debet habere: ex hoc enim unumquodque dicitur malum esse. Est igitur malum in subiecto quod est in potentia ad ipsum et ad suum oppositum. Oportet igitur quod malum habeat aliquam causam.
<td>[3] Again, that which is in potency to either of two contraries is not advanced to actuality under one of them unless through some cause, for no potency makes itself be in act. Now, evil is a privation of something that is natural to a man, and which he ought to have. This is why anything whatever is called evil. So, evil is present in a subject that is in potency to evil and to its contrary. Therefore, it is necessary for evil to have some cause.
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<td>Adhuc. Quicquid inest alicui praeter suam naturam, advenit ei ex aliqua alia causa: omnia enim in his quae sunt sibi naturalia permanent nisi aliquid aliud impediat; unde lapis non fertur sursum nisi ab aliquo proiiciente, nec aqua calefit nisi ab aliquo calefaciente. Malum autem semper inest praeter naturam eius cui inest: cum sit privatio eius quod natum est aliquid et debet habere. Igitur oportet quod malum semper habeat aliquam causam, vel per se vel per accidens.
<td>[4] Besides, whatever is present in something and is not due to it from its nature comes to it from some other cause, for all things present in existing beings as natural components remain there unless something else prevents them. Thus, a stone is not moved upward unless by something else that impels it, nor is water heated unless by some heating agent. Now, evil is always present as something foreign to the nature of that in which it is, since it is a privation of what a thing has from its natural origin, and ought to have. Therefore evil must always have some cause, either directly of itself, or accidentally.
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<td>Amplius. Omne malum consequitur ad aliquod bonum: sicut corruptio sequitur ad aliquam generationem. Sed omne bonum habet aliquam causam, praeter primum bonum, in quo non est aliquod malum, ut in primo libro ostensum est. Omne igitur malum habet aliquam causam, ad quam sequitur per accidens.
<td>[5] Moreover, every evil is the consequence of a good, as corruption is the result of an act of generation. But every good has a cause, other than the first good in which there is no evil, as has been shown in Book One [39]. Therefore, every evil has a cause, in regard to which it is an accidental result.
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<hr></a> <a name="14" id="14">
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Caput 14<br>
Quod malum est causa per accidens</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 14<br>
THAT EVIL IS AN ACCIDENTAL CAUSE</b>
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<td>Ex eisdem etiam patet quod malum, etsi non sit causa per se, est tamen causa per accidens.
<td>[1] It is plain, from the same consideration, that evil, though not a direct cause of anything by itself, is, however, an accidental cause.
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<td>Si enim aliquid est causa alicuius per se, id quod accidit ei, est causa illius per accidens: sicut album quod accidit aedificatori, est causa domus per accidens. Omne autem malum est in aliquo bono. Bonum autem omne est alicuius aliquo modo causa: materia enim est quodammodo causa formae, et quodammodo e converso; et similiter est de agente et fine. Unde non sequitur processus in infinitum in causis, si quodlibet est alicuius causa, propter circulum inventum in causis et causatis secundum species diversas causarum. Malum igitur est per accidens causa.
<td>[2] For, if a thing is the direct cause of something, then that which is an accidental concomitant of this direct cause is the accidental cause of the resultant. Take, for instance, the fact that a builder happens to be white, then whiteness is the accidental cause of the house. Now, every evil is present in something good. And every good thing is the cause of something in some way, for matter is in one way the cause of form; in another way the converse is so. The same is true of the agent and the end. Hence, the result is not a process to infinity in causes if each thing is the cause of another thing, for there is a circle involved in causes and effects, depending on the different types of cause. So, evil is an accidental cause.
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<td>Adhuc. Malum est privatio quaedam, ut ex praedictis patet. Privatio autem est principium per accidens in rebus mobilibus, sicut materia et forma per se. Malum igitur est alicuius causa per accidens.
<td>[3] Again, evil is a privation, as we have seen before. Now, privation is an accidental principle in beings subject to motion, just as matter and form are essential principles. Therefore, evil is the accidental cause of something else.
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<td>Praeterea. Ex defectu causae sequitur defectus in effectu. Defectus autem in causa est aliquod malum. Non tamen potest esse causa per se: quia res non est causa per hoc quod est deficiens, sed per hoc quod est ens; si enim tota deficeret, nullius esset causa. Malum igitur est alicuius causa non per se, sed per accidens.
<td>[4] Besides, from a defect in a cause there follows a defect in the effect. Now a defect in a cause is an evil. Yet, it cannot be a direct cause in itself, for a thing is not a cause by the fact that it is defective but rather by the fact that it is a being. Indeed, if it were entirely defective, it would not cause anything. So, evil is the cause of something, not as a direct cause by itself, but accidentally.
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<td>Item. Secundum omnes species causarum discurrendo, invenitur malum esse per accidens causa. In specie quidem causae efficientis quia propter causae agentis deficientem virtutem sequitur defectus in effectu et actione. In specie vero causae materialis, quia ex materiae indispositione causatur in effectu defectus. In specie vero causae formalis, quia uni formae semper adiungitur alterius formae privatio. In specie vero causae finalis, quia indebito fini adiungitur malum, inquantum per ipsum finis debitus impeditur.
<td>[5] Moreover, evil is found to be an accidental cause in a discursive examination of all types of cause. This is so, in the kind of cause which is efficient, since a defect in the effect and in action results from a deficiency of power in the acting cause. Then, in the type of cause that is material, a defect in the effect is caused by the unsuitable character of the matter. Again, in the kind of cause which is formal, there is the fact that a privation of another form is always the adjunct of the presence of a given form. And, in the type of cause that is final, evil is connected with an improper end, inasmuch as the proper end is hindered by it.
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<td>Patet igitur quod malum est causa per accidens, et non potest esse causa per se.
<td>[6] Therefore, it is clear that evil is an accidental cause and cannot be a direct cause by itself.
</table>
<hr></a> <a name="15" id="15">
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Caput 15<br>
Quod non est summum malum</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 15<br>
THAT THERE IS NO HIGHEST EVIL</b>
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<td>Ex hoc autem patet quod non potest esse aliquod summum malum, quod sit omnium malorum principium.
<td>[1] As a consequence, it is evident that there cannot be any highest evil which would be the first source of all evils.
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<td>Summum enim malum oportet esse absque consortio omnis boni: sicut et summum bonum est quod est omnino separatum a malo. Non potest autem esse aliquod malum omnino separatum a bono: cum ostensum sit quod malum fundatur in bono. Ergo nihil est summe malum.
<td>[2] The highest evil ought to be quite dissociated from any good; just as the highest good is that which is completely separate from evil. Now, no evil can exist in complete separation from the good, for we have shown that evil is based upon the good. Therefore, the highest evil is nothing.
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<td>Adhuc. Si aliquid est summe malum, oportet quod per essentiam suam sit malum: sicut et summe bonum est quod per suam essentiam bonum est. Hoc autem est impossibile: cum malum non habeat aliquam essentiam, ut supra probatum est. Impossibile est igitur ponere summum malum, quod sit malorum principium.
<td>[3] Again, if the highest evil be anything, it must be evil in its own essence, just as the highest good is what is good in its own essence. Now, this is impossible, because evil has no essence, as we proved above. So, it is impossible to posit a highest evil which would be the source of evils.
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<td>Item. Illud quod est primum principium, non est ab aliquo causatum. Omne autem malum causatur a bono, ut ostensum est. Non est igitur malum primum principium.
<td>[4] Besides, that which is a first principle is not caused by anything. But every evil is caused by a good, as we have shown. Therefore, evil is not a first principle.
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<td>Amplius. Malum non agit nisi virtute boni, ut ex praemissis patet. Primum autem principium agit virtute propria. Malum igitur non potest esse primum principium.
<td>[5] Moreover, evil acts only through the power of the good, as is clear from what has been established previously. But a first principle acts through its own power. Therefore, evil cannot be a first principle.
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<td>Praeterea. Cum id quod est per accidens, sit posterius eo quod est per se, impossibile est quod sit primum id quod est per accidens. Malum autem non evenit nisi per accidens et praeter intentionem, ut probatum est. Impossibile est igitur quod malum sit primum principium.
<td>[6] Furthermore, since “that which is accidental is posterior to that which is per se,” it is impossible for that which is first to be accidental. Now, evil arises only accidentally, and apart from intention, as has been demonstrated. So, it is impossible for evil to be a first principle.
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<td>Adhuc. Omne malum habet causam per accidens, ut probatum est. Primum autem principium non habet causam neque per se neque per accidens. Malum igitur non potest esse primum principium in aliquo genere.
<td>[7] Again, every evil has an accidental cause, as we have proved. Now, a first principle has no cause, whether direct or accidental. Therefore, evil cannot be a first principle in any genus.
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<td>Item. Causa per se prior est ea quae per accidens. Sed malum non est causa nisi per accidens, ut ostensum est. Malum igitur non potest esse primum principium.
<td>[8] Besides, a per sc cause is prior to one which is accidental. But evil is not a cause, except in the accidental sense, as we have shown.” So, evil cannot be a first principle.
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<td>Per hoc autem excluditur error Manichaeorum, ponentium aliquod summum malum, quod est principium primum omnium malorum.
<td>[9] By means of this conclusion, the error of the Manicheans is refuted, for they claimed that there is a highest evil which is the first principle of all evils.
</table>
<hr></a> <a name="16" id="16">
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Caput 16<br>
Quod finis cuiuslibet rei est bonum</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 16<br>
THAT THE END OF EVERYTHING IS A GOOD</b>
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<td>Si autem omne agens agit propter bonum, ut supra probatum est, sequitur ulterius quod cuiuslibet entis bonum sit finis. Omne enim ens ordinatur in finem per suam actionem: oportet enim quod vel ipsa actio sit finis; vel actionis finis est etiam finis agentis. Quod est eius bonum.
<td>[1] If every agent acts for the sake of a good, as was proved above, it follows further that the end of every being is a good. For every being is ordered to its end through its action. It must be, then, that the action itself is the end, or that the end of the action is also the end of the agent. And this is its good.
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<td>Amplius. Finis rei cuiuslibet est in quod terminatur appetitus eius. Appetitus autem cuiuslibet rei terminatur ad bonum: sic enim philosophi diffiniunt bonum, quod omnia appetunt. Cuiuslibet igitur rei finis est aliquod bonum.
<td>[2] Again, the end of anything is that in which its appetite terminates. Now, the appetite of anything terminates in a good; this is how the philosophers define the good: “that which all things desire.” Therefore, the end for everything is a good.
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<td>Item. Illud ad quod aliquid tendit cum extra ipsum fuerit, et in quo quiescit cum ipsum habuerit, est finis eius. Unumquodque autem, si perfectione propria careat, in ipsam movetur, quantum in se est: si vero eam habeat, in ipsa quiescit. Finis igitur uniuscuiusque rei est eius perfectio. Perfectio autem cuiuslibet est bonum ipsius. Unumquodque igitur ordinatur in bonum sicut in finem.
<td>[3] Besides, that toward which a thing tends, while it is beyond the thing, and in which it rests, when it is possessed, is the end for the thing. Now, if anything lacks a proper perfection, it is moved toward it, in so far as lies within its capacity, but if it possess it the thing rests in it. Therefore, the end of each thing is its perfection. Now, the perfection of anything is its good. So, each thing is ordered to a good as an end.
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<td>Praeterea. Eodem modo ordinantur in finem ea quae cognoscunt finem, et ea quae finem non cognoscunt: licet quae cognoscunt finem, per se moveantur in finem; quae autem non cognoscunt, tendunt in finem quasi ab alio directa, sicut patet de sagittante et sagitta. Sed ea quae cognoscunt finem, semper ordinantur in bonum sicut in finem: nam voluntas, quae est appetitus finis praecogniti, non tendit in aliquid nisi sub ratione boni, quod est eius obiectum. Ergo et ea quae finem non cognoscunt, ordinantur in bonum sicut in finem. Finis igitur omnium est bonum.
<td>[4] Moreover, things that know their end are ordered to the end in the same way as things which do not know it, though the ones that do know their end are moved toward it through themselves, while those that do not know it incline to their end, as directed by another being. The example of the archer and the arrow shows this clearly. However, things that know their end are always ordered to the good as an end, for the will, which is the appetite for a foreknown end, inclines toward something only if it has the rational character of a good, which is its object. So, also, the things which do not know their end are ordered to a good as an end. Therefore, the end of all things is a good.
</table>
<hr></a> <a name="17" id="17">
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<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Caput 17<br>
Quod omnia ordinantur in unum finem, qui est Deus</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 17<br>
THAT ALL THINGS ARE ORDERED TO ONE END WHO IS GOD</b>
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<td>Ex hoc autem apparet quod omnia ordinantur in unum bonum sicut in ultimum finem.
<td>[1] It is, consequently, apparent that all things are ordered to one good, as to their ultimate end.
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<td>Si enim nihil tendit in aliquid sicut in finem nisi inquantum ipsum est bonum, ergo oportet quod bonum inquantum bonum sit finis. Quod igitur est summum bonum, est maxime omnium finis. Sed summum bonum est unum tantum, quod est Deus: ut in primo libro probatum est. Omnia igitur ordinantur sicut in finem in unum bonum quod est Deus.
<td>[2] If, in fact, nothing tends toward a thing as an end, unless this thing is a good, it is therefore necessary that the good, as good, be the end. Therefore, that which is the highest good is, from the highest point of view, the end of all things. But there is only one highest good, and this is God, as has been demonstrated in Book One [42]. So, all things are ordered to one good, as their end, and this is God.
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<td>Item. Quod est maximum in unoquoque genere, est causa omnium illorum quae sunt illius generis; sicut ignis, qui est calidissimus, est causa caliditatis in aliis corporibus. Summum igitur bonum, quod est Deus, est causa bonitatis in omnibus bonis. Ergo et est causa cuiuslibet finis quod sit finis: cum quicquid est finis, sit huiusmodi inquantum est bonum. Propter quod autem est unumquodque, et illud magis. Deus igitur maxime est omnium rerum finis.
<td>[3] Again, that which is supreme in any genus is the cause of all the members that belong in that genus; thus, fire, which is the hottest of corporeal things, is the cause of the heat of other things. Therefore, the highest good which is God is the cause of the goodness in all good things. So, also, is He the cause of every end that is an end, since whatever is an end is such because it is a good. Now, “the cause of an attribute’s inherence in a subject always itself inheres in the subject more firmly than does the attribute.” Therefore, God is obviously the end of all things.
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<td>Adhuc. In quolibet genere causarum causa prima est magis causa quam causa secunda: nam causa secunda non est causa nisi per causam primam. Illud igitur quod est causa prima in ordine causarum finalium, oportet quod sit magis causa finalis cuiuslibet quam causa finalis proxima. Sed Deus est prima causa in ordine causarum finalium: cum sit summum in ordine bonorum. Est igitur magis finis uniuscuiusque rei quam aliquis finis proximus.
<td>[4] Besides, in any kind of causes, the first cause is more a cause than is the secondary cause, for a secondary cause is only a cause through the primary cause. Therefore, that which is the first cause in the order of final causes must be more the final cause of anything than is its proximate final cause. But God is the first cause in the order of final causes, since He is the highest in the order of goods. Therefore, He is more the end of everything than is any proximate end.
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<td>Amplius. In omnibus finibus ordinatis oportet quod ultimus finis sit finis omnium praecedentium finium: sicut, si potio conficitur ut detur aegroto, datur autem ut purgetur, purgatur autem ut extenuetur, extenuatur autem ut sanetur; oportet quod sanitas sit finis et extenuationis et purgationis et aliorum praecedentium. Sed omnia inveniuntur in diversis gradibus bonitatis ordinata sub uno summo bono, quod est causa omnis bonitatis: ac per hoc, cum bonum habeat rationem finis, omnia ordinantur sub Deo sicut fines praecedentes sub fine ultimo. Oportet igitur quod omnium finis sit Deus.
<td>[5] Moreover, in every ordered series of ends the ultimate end must be the end of all preceding ends. For instance, if a potion is mixed to be given a sick man, and it is given in order to purge him, and he is purged in order to make him thinner, and he is thinned down so that he may become healthy.—then health must be the end of the thinning process, and of the purging, and of the other actions which precede it. But all things are found, in their various degrees of goodness, to be subordinated to one highest good which is the cause of all goodness. Consequently, since the good has the essential character of an end, all things are subordinated to God, as preceding ends under an ultimate end. Therefore, God must be the end of all things.
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<td>Praeterea. Bonum particulare ordinatur in bonum commune sicut in finem: esse enim partis est propter esse totius; unde et bonum gentis est divinius quam bonum unius hominis. Bonum autem summum, quod est Deus, est bonum commune, cum ex eo universorum bonum dependeat: bonum autem quo quaelibet res bona est, est bonum particulare ipsius et aliorum quae ab ipso dependent. Omnes igitur res ordinantur sicut in finem in unum bonum, quod est Deus.
<td>[6] Furthermore, a particular good is ordered to the common good as to an end; indeed, the being of a part depends on the being of the whole. So, also, the good of a nation is more godlike than the good of one man. Now, the highest good which is God is the common good, since the good of all things taken together depends on Him; and the good whereby each thing is good is its own particular good, and also is the good of the other things that depend on this thing. Therefore, all things are ordered to one good as their end, and that is God.
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<td>Item. Ad ordinem agentium sequitur ordo in finibus: nam sicut supremum agens movet omnia secunda agentia, ita ad finem supremi agentis oportet quod ordinentur omnes fines secundorum agentium: quidquid enim agit supremum agens, agit propter finem suum. Agit autem supremum actiones omnium inferiorum agentium, movendo omnes ad suas actiones, et per consequens ad suos fines. Unde sequitur quod omnes fines secundorum agentium ordinentur a primo agente in finem suum proprium. Agens autem primum rerum omnium est Deus, ut in secundo probatum est. Voluntatis autem ipsius nihil aliud finis est quam sua bonitas, quae est ipsemet, ut in primo probatum est. Omnia igitur quaecumque sunt facta vel ab ipso immediate, vel mediantibus causis secundis, in Deum ordinantur sicut in finem. Omnia autem entia sunt huiusmodi: nam, sicut in secundo probatur, nihil esse potest quod ab ipso non habeat esse. Omnia igitur ordinantur in Deum sicut in finem.
<td>[7] Again, order among ends is a consequence of order among agents, for, just as the supreme agent moves all secondary agents, so must all the ends of secondary agents be ordered to the end of the supreme agent, since whatever the supreme agent does, He does for the sake of His end. Now, the supreme agent does the actions of all inferior agents by moving them all to their actions and, consequently, to their ends. Hence, it follows that all the ends of secondary agents are ordered by the first agent to His own proper end. Of course, the first agent of all things is God, as we proved in Book Two [15]. There is no other end for His will than His goodness, which is Himself, as we proved in Book One [74]. Therefore, all things, whether made by Him. immediately, or by means of secondary causes, are ordered to God as to their end. Now, all things are of this kind, for, as we proved in Book Two [15], there can be nothing that does not take its being from Him. So, all things are ordered to God as an end.
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<td>Adhuc. Finis ultimus cuiuslibet facientis, inquantum est faciens, est ipsemet: utimur enim factis a nobis propter nos; et si aliquid aliquando propter aliud homo faciat, hoc refertur in bonum suum vel utile vel delectabile vel honestum. Deus autem est causa factiva rerum omnium, quorundam quidem immediate, quorundam autem mediantibus aliis causis, ut ex praemissis est manifestum. Est igitur ipsemet finis rerum omnium.
<td>[8] Besides, the ultimate end of any maker, as a maker, is himself; we use things made by us for our own sakes, and, if sometimes a man makes a thing for some other purpose, this has reference to his own good, either as useful, delectable, or as a good for its own sake. Now, God is the productive cause of all things, of some immediately, of others by means of other causes, as is shown in the foregoing. Therefore, He Himself is the end of all things.
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<td>Praeterea. Finis inter alias causas primatum obtinet, et ab ipso omnes aliae causae habent quod sint causae in actu: agens enim non agit nisi propter finem, ut ostensum est. Ex agente autem materia in actum formae reducitur: unde materia fit actu huius rei materia, et similiter forma huius rei forma, per actionem agentis, et per consequens per finem. Finis etiam posterior est causa quod praecedens finis intendatur ut finis: non enim movetur aliquid in finem proximum nisi propter finem postremum. Est igitur finis ultimus prima omnium causa. Esse autem primam omnium causam necesse est primo enti convenire, quod Deus est, ut supra ostensum est. Deus igitur est ultimus omnium finis.
<td>[9] Moreover, the end holds first place over other types of cause, and to it all other causes owe the fact that they are causes in act: for the agent acts only for the sake of the end, as was pointed out.” Matter is brought to formal act by the agent, and thus matter actually becomes the matter of this particular thing, as form becomes the form of this thing: through the action of the agent, and consequently through the end. So, too, the posterior end is the cause of the preceding end being intended as an end, for a thing is not moved toward a proximate end unless for the sake of a last end. Therefore, the ultimate end is the first cause of all. Now, to be the first cause of all must be appropriate to the first being, that is, to God, as was shown above. So, God is the ultimate end of all things.
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<td>Hinc est quod dicitur Proverb. 16-4: universa propter semetipsum operatus est Deus. Et Apoc. ult.: ego sum alpha et omega, primus et novissimus.
<td>[10] Thus it is said in Proverbs (16:4): “God made all things for Himself”; and in the Apocalypse (22:13): “I am Alpha and Omega, the First and the Last.”
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<hr></a> <a name="18" id="18">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 18<br>
Quomodo Deus sit finis rerum</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 18<br>
HOW GOD IS THE END OF ALL THINGS</b>
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<td>Restat igitur inquirendum quomodo Deus sit omnium finis. Quod quidem ex praemissis fiet manifestum.
<td>[1] We must further investigate how God is the end of all. This will be made clear from the foregoing.
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<td>Sic enim est ultimus finis omnium rerum quod tamen est prius omnibus in essendo. Finis autem aliquis invenitur qui, etiam si primatum obtineat in causando secundum quod est in intentione, est tamen in essendo posterius. Quod quidem contingit in quolibet fine quem agens sua actione constituit: sicut medicus constituit sanitatem per suam actionem in infirmo, quae tamen est finis eius. Aliquis autem finis invenitur qui, sicut est praecedens in causando, ita etiam in essendo praecedit: sicut dicitur finis id quod aliquid sua actione vel motu acquirere intendit, ut locum sursum ignis per suum motum, et civitatem rex per pugnam. Deus igitur sic est finis rerum sicut aliquid ab unaquaque re suo modo obtinendum.
<td>[2] The ultimate end of all is such that He is, nonetheless, prior to all things in existing being. Now, there is a sort of end which, though it holds first place causally in the order of intention, is posterior in existing. This is the situation with an end which the agent sets up by his own action, as a physician sets up health in a sick man by his own action; this is, of course, the physician’s end. And then there is an end which takes precedence in existing being, just as it precedes in the causal order. For instance, we call that an end which one intends to obtain by his action or motion, as fire inclines upward by its motion, and a king intends to establish a city by fighting. Therefore, God is not the end of things in the sense of being something set up as an ideal, but as a pre-existing being Who is to be attained.
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<td>Adhuc. Deus est simul ultimus rerum finis, et primum agens, ut ostensum est. Finis autem per actionem agentis constitutus, non potest esse primum agens, sed est magis effectus agentis. Non potest igitur Deus sic esse finis rerum quasi aliquid constitutum, sed solum quasi aliquid praeexistens obtinendum.
<td>[3] Again, God is at once the ultimate end of things and the first agent, as we have shown. But the end that is produced by the action of the agent cannot be the first agent; it is, rather, the effect of the agent. Therefore, God cannot be the end of things in this way, as something produced, but only as something pre-existing that is to be attained.
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<td>Amplius. Si aliquid agat propter rem aliquam iam existentem, et per eius actionem aliquid constituatur, oportet quod rei propter quam agit aliquid acquiratur ex actione agentis: sicut si milites pugnant propter ducem, cui acquiritur victoria, quam milites suis actionibus causant. Deo autem non potest aliquid acquiri ex actione cuiuslibet rei: est enim sua bonitas omnino perfecta, ut in primo libro ostensum est. Relinquitur igitur quod Deus sit finis rerum, non sicut aliquid constitutum aut effectum a rebus, neque ita quod aliquid ei a rebus acquiratur, sed hoc solo modo, quia ipse rebus acquiritur.
<td>[4] Besides, if something act for the sake of an already existing thing, and should then set up something by its action, then this something must be added by the action of the agent to the thing for the sake of which the action is done: thus, if soldiers fight for the sake of their leader, victory will come to the leader, and this is what the soldiers cause by their actions. Now, something cannot be added to God by the action of a thing, for His goodness is completely perfect, as we showed in Book One [37ff]. The conclusion stands, then, that God is the end of things, not in the sense of something set up, or produced, by things, nor in the sense that something is added to Him by things, but in this sense only, that He is attained by things.
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<td>Item. Oportet quod eo modo effectus tendat in finem quo agens propter finem agit. Deus autem qui est primum agens omnium rerum, non sic agit quasi sua actione aliquid acquirat, sed quasi sua actione aliquid largiatur: quia non est in potentia ut aliquid acquirere possit, sed solum in actu perfecto, ex quo potest elargiri. Res igitur non ordinantur in Deum sicut in finem cui aliquid acquiratur, sed ut ab ipso ipsummet suo modo consequantur, cum ipsemet sit finis.
<td>[5] Moreover, the effect must tend toward the end in the same way that the agent works for the end. Now, God, Who is the first agent of all things, does not act in such a way that something is attained by His action, but in such a way that something is enriched by His action. For He is not in potency to the possibility of obtaining something; rather, He is in perfect act simply, and as a result He is a source of enrichment. So, things are not ordered to God as to an end for which something may be obtained, but rather so that they may attain Himself from Himself, according to their measure, since He is their end.
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<hr></a> <a name="19" id="19">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 19<br>
Quod omnia intendunt assimilari Deo</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 19<br>
THAT ALL THINGS TEND TO BECOME LIKE GOD</b>
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<td>Ex hoc autem quod acquirunt divinam bonitatem, res creatae similes Deo constituuntur. Si igitur res omnes in Deum sicut in ultimum finem tendunt ut ipsius bonitatem consequantur, sequitur quod ultimus rerum finis sit Deo assimilari.
<td>[1] Created things are made like unto God by the fact that they attain to divine goodness. If then, all things tend toward God as an ultimate end, so that they may attain His goodness, it follows that the ultimate end of things is to become like God.
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<td>Amplius. Agens dicitur esse finis effectus inquantum effectus tendit in similitudinem agentis: unde forma generantis est finis generationis. Sed Deus ita est finis rerum quod est etiam primum agens earum. Omnia igitur intendunt, sicut ultimum finem, Deo assimilari.
<td>[2] Again, the agent is said to be the end of the effect because the effect tends to become like the agent; hence, “the form of the generator is the end of the generating action.” But God is the end of things in such a way that He is also their first agent. Therefore, all things tend to become like God as to their ultimate end.
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<td>Item. In rebus evidenter apparet quod esse appetunt naturaliter: unde et si qua corrumpi possunt, naturaliter corrumpentibus resistunt, et tendunt illuc ubi conserventur, sicut ignis sursum et terra deorsum. Secundum hoc autem esse habent omnia quod Deo assimilantur, qui est ipsum esse subsistens: cum omnia sint solum quasi esse participantia. Omnia igitur appetunt quasi ultimum finem Deo assimilari.
<td>[3] Besides, it is quite evident that things “naturally desire to be,” and if they can be corrupted by anything they naturally resist corrupting agents and tend toward a place where they may be preserved, as fire inclines upward and earth downward. Now, all things get their being from the fact that they are made like unto God, Who is subsisting being itself, for all things exist merely as participants in existing being. Therefore, all things desire as their ultimate end to be made like unto God.
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<td>Praeterea. Res omnes creatae sunt quaedam imagines primi agentis, scilicet Dei: agens enim agit sibi simile. Perfectio autem imaginis est ut repraesentet suum exemplar per similitudinem ad ipsum: ad hoc enim imago constituitur. Sunt igitur res omnes propter divinam similitudinem consequendam sicut propter ultimum finem.
<td>[4] Moreover, all created things are, in a sense, images of the first agent, that is, of God, “for the agent makes a product to his own likeness. Now, the function of a perfect image is to represent its prototype by likeness to it; this is why an image is made. Therefore, all things exist in order to attain to the divine likeness, as to their ultimate end.
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<td>Adhuc. Omnis res per suum motum vel actionem tendit in aliquod bonum sicut in finem, ut supra ostensum est. In tantum autem aliquid de bono participat, in quantum assimilatur primae bonitati, quae Deus est. Omnia igitur per motus suos et actiones tendunt in divinam similitudinem sicut in finem ultimum.
<td>[5] Furthermore, everything tends through its motion or action toward a good, as its end, which we showed above. Now, a thing participates in the good precisely to the same extent that it becomes like the first goodness, which is God. So, all things tend through their movements and actions toward the divine likeness, as toward their ultimate end.
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<hr></a> <a name="20" id="20">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 20<br>
Quomodo res imitentur divinam bonitatem</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 20<br>
HOW THINGS IMITATE DIVINE GOODNESS</b>
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<td>Patet ergo ex his quae dicta sunt quod assimilari ad Deum est ultimus omnium finis. Id autem quod proprie habet rationem finis, est bonum. Tendunt igitur res in hoc quod assimilentur Deo proprie inquantum est bonus.
<td>[1] From what has been said, then, it is clear that to become like God is the ultimate end of all. Now, that which possesses the formal character of an end, in the proper sense, is the good. Therefore, things tend toward this objective, of becoming like God, inasmuch as He is good.
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<td>Bonitatem autem creaturae non assequuntur eo modo sicut in Deo est, licet divinam bonitatem unaquaeque res imitetur secundum suum modum. Divina enim bonitas simplex est, quasi tota in uno consistens. Ipsum enim divinum esse omnem plenitudinem perfectionis obtinet, ut in primo libro probatum est. Unde, cum unumquodque in tantum sit bonum in quantum est perfectum, ipsum divinum esse est eius perfecta bonitas: idem enim est Deo esse, vivere, sapientem esse, beatum esse, et quicquid aliud ad perfectionem et bonitatem pertinere videtur, quasi tota divina bonitas sit ipsum divinum esse. Rursumque ipsum divinum esse est ipsius Dei existentis substantia. In aliis autem rebus hoc accidere non potest. Ostensum est enim in secundo quod nulla substantia creata est ipsum suum esse. Unde, si secundum quod res quaelibet est, bona est; non est autem earum aliqua suum esse: nulla earum est sua bonitas, sed earum quaelibet bonitatis participatione bona est, sicut et ipsius esse participatione est ens.
<td>[2] Creatures do not attain goodness in the same measure that it is in God, though each thing imitates divine goodness according to its measure. For, divine goodness is simple, entirely gathered together, as it were, into one being. Indeed, this divine existing being includes the entire fullness of perfection, as we proved in Book One [28]. As a result, since anything is perfect to the extent that it is good, this divine being is His perfect goodness. In fact, for God it is the same thing to be, to live, to be wise, to be blessed, and to be whatever else seems to belong to perfection and goodness; the whole divine goodness is, as it were, His divine existing being. Again, this divine being is the substance of the existing God. Now, this cannot obtain in the case of other things. We have pointed out in Book Two [15] that no created substance is its own act of being. Hence, if anything is good by virtue of the fact that it exists, none of them is its own act of being; none of them is its own goodness. Rather, each of them is good by participation in goodness, just as it is being by participation in existing being itself.
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<td>Rursus. Non omnes creaturae in uno gradu bonitatis constituuntur. Nam quorundam substantia forma et actus est: scilicet cui secundum id quod est, competit esse actu et bonum esse. Quorundam vero substantia ex materia et forma composita est: cui competit actu esse et bonum esse, sed secundum aliquid sui, scilicet secundum formam. Divina igitur substantia sua bonitas est; substantia vero simplex bonitatem participat secundum id quod est; substantia autem composita secundum aliquid sui.
<td>[3] Again, not all creatures are established on one level of goodness. For some of them, substance is their form and their act: this is so for the creature to whom, because of what it is essentially, it is appropriate to be, and to be good. For others, indeed, substance is composed of matter and form: to such a being it is appropriate to be, and to be good—but by virtue of some part of it, that is to say, by virtue of its form. Therefore, divine substance is its own goodness, but a simple substance participates goodness by virtue of what it is essentially, while composite substance does so by virtue of something that belongs to it as a part.
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<td>In hoc autem tertio gradu substantiarum iterum diversitas invenitur quantum ad ipsum esse. Nam quorundam ex materia et forma compositorum totam materiae potentiam forma adimplet, ita quod non remanet in materia potentia ad aliam formam: et per consequens nec in aliqua alia materia potentia ad hanc formam. Et huiusmodi sunt corpora caelestia, quae ex tota materia sua constant. Quorundam vero forma non replet totam materiae potentiam: unde adhuc in materia remanet potentia ad aliam formam; et in alia materiae parte remanet potentia ad hanc formam; sicut patet in elementis et elementatis. Quia vero privatio est negatio in substantia eius quod substantiae potest inesse, manifestum est quod cum hac forma quae non implet totam materiae potentiam, adiungitur privatio formae: quae quidem adiungi non potest substantiae cuius forma implet totam materiae potentiam; neque illi quae est forma per suam essentiam; et multo minus illi cuius essentia est ipsum suum esse. Cum autem manifestum sit quod motus non potest esse ubi non est potentia ad aliud, quia motus est actus existentis in potentia; itemque manifestum sit quod malum est ipsa privatio boni: planum est quod in hoc ultimo substantiarum ordine est bonum mutabile et permixtionem mali oppositi habens; quod in superioribus substantiarum ordinibus accidere non potest. Possidet igitur haec substantia ultimo modo dicta, sicut ultimum gradum in esse, ita ultimum gradum in bonitate.
<td>[4] In this third grade of substance, in turn, there is found a diversity in regard to being itself. For some of them that are composed of matter and form, the form fulfills the entire potentiality of the matter, so that there remains in their matter no potentiality for another form. And consequently, there is no potentiality in other matter for the form of this type of substance. Beings of this type are celestial bodies, which actuate their entire matter when they exist. For other substances, the form does not exhaust the entire potentiality of their matter; consequently, there still remains a potentiality for another form, and in some other portion of matter there remains a potentiality for this sort of form, as is the case in the elements and in things composed of the elements. In fact, since privation is the negation in a substance of something which can be present in that substance, it is clear that the privation of a form is found combined with the type of form that does not exhaust the entire potentiality of matter. Indeed, privation cannot be associated with a substance whose form exhausts the entire potentiality of its matter; nor with one which is a form in its essence; still less with one whose essence is its very act of being. Now, since it is obvious that change cannot take place where there is no potentiality to something else, for motion is the “act of that which exists potentially,” and since it is also clear that evil is the very privation of the good, it is plain that, in this lowest order of substances, the good is mutable and mixed with its contrary evil. This cannot occur in the higher orders of substances. Therefore, this substance which we have said is on the lowest level holds the lowest rank in goodness, just as it has the lowest grade in being.
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<td>Inter partes etiam huius substantiae ex materia et forma compositae, bonitatis ordo invenitur. Cum enim materia sit ens in potentia secundum se considerata, forma vero sit actus eius; substantia vero composita sit actu existens per formam: forma quidem erit secundum se bona, substantia vero composita prout actu habet formam; materia vero secundum quod est in potentia ad formam. Et licet unumquodque sit bonum inquantum est ens, non tamen oportet quod materia, quae est ens solum in potentia, sit bona solum in potentia. Ens enim absolute dicitur, bonum autem etiam in ordine consistit: non enim solum aliquid bonum dicitur quia est finis, vel quia est obtinens finem; sed, etiam si nondum ad finem pervenerit, dummodo sit ordinatum in finem, ex hoc ipso dicitur bonum. Materia ergo non potest simpliciter dici ens ex hoc quod est potentia ens, in quo importatur ordo ad esse: potest autem ex hoc simpliciter dici bona, propter ordinem ipsum. In quo apparet quod bonum quodammodo amplioris est ambitus quam ens: propter quod Dionysius dicit, IV cap. de Div. Nom., quod bonum se extendit ad existentia et non existentia. Nam et ipsa non existentia, scilicet materia secundum quod intelligitur privationi subiecta, appetit bonum, scilicet esse. Ex quo patet quod etiam sit bona: nihil enim appetit bonum nisi bonum.
<td>[5] Still, among the parts of this sort of substance composed of matter and form, an order of goodness is found. In fact, since matter, considered in itself, is potential being and form is its act, and since composite substance is actually existent through form, the form will be good in itself; while the composite substance is so in so far as it actually possesses form; and the matter is good inasmuch as it is in potentiality to form. Besides, though anything is good in so far as it is a being, it is not, however, necessary for matter which is merely potential being to be good only in potency. For being is a term used absolutely, while good also includes a relation. In fact, a thing is not called good simply because it is an end, or because it has achieved the end; provided it be ordered to the end, it may be called good because of this relation. So, matter cannot be called a being without qualification, because it is potential being, in which a relation to existing being is implied, but it can be called good, without qualification, precisely because of this relation. It is apparent in this conclusion that good is, in a way, of wider scope than being. For this reason, Dionysius says, in the fourth chapter of On the Divine Names: “the good extends to existent beings and also to non-existent ones.” For, this non-existent thing—namely matter understood as subject to privation—desires a good, that is, to be. It is, consequently, evident that it is also good, for nothing except a good thing desires the good.
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<td>Est et alio modo creaturae bonitas a bonitate divina deficiens. Nam, sicut dictum est, Deus in ipso suo esse summam perfectionem obtinet bonitatis. Res autem creata suam perfectionem non possidet in uno, sed in multis: quod enim est in supremo unitum, multiplex in infimis invenitur. Unde Deus secundum idem dicitur esse virtuosus, sapiens et operans, creatura vero secundum diversa: tantoque perfecta bonitas alicuius creaturae maiorem multiplicitatem requirit, quanto magis a prima bonitate distans invenitur. Si vero perfectam bonitatem non potest attingere, imperfectam retinebit in paucis. Et inde est quod, licet primum et summum bonum sit omnino simplex; substantiaeque ei in bonitate propinquae, sint pariter et quantum ad simplicitatem vicinae: infimae tamen substantiae inveniuntur simpliciores quibusdam superioribus eis, sicut elementa animalibus et hominibus, quia non possunt pertingere ad perfectionem cognitionis et intellectus, quam consequuntur animalia et homines.
<td>[6] There is still another way in which the goodness of a creature is defective in comparison with divine goodness. For, as we said, God in His very act of being holds the highest perfection of goodness. On the other hand, a created thing does not possess its perfection in unity, but in many items, for what is unified in the highest instance is found to be manifold in the lowest things. Consequently, God is said to be virtuous, wise, and operative with reference to the same thing, but creatures are so described with reference to a diversity of things. And so, the more multiplicity the perfect goodness of any creature requires, the more removed is it from the first goodness. If it cannot attain perfect goodness, it will keep imperfect goodness in a few items. Hence it is that, though the first and highest good is altogether simple, and the substances that are nearer to it in goodness are likewise close to it in regard to simplicity, we find some among the lowest substances to be simpler than some of their superiors, as is the case with elements in relation to animals and men; yet these lower simple beings cannot achieve the perfection of knowledge and understanding which animals and men do attain.
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<td>Manifestum est ergo ex dictis quod, licet Deus secundum suum simplex esse perfectam et totam suam bonitatem habeat, creaturae tamen ad perfectionem suae bonitatis non pertingunt per solum suum esse, sed per plura. Unde, licet quaelibet earum sit bona inquantum est, non tamen potest simpliciter bona dici si aliis careat quae ad ipsius bonitatem requiruntur: sicut homo qui, virtute spoliatus, vitiis est subiectus, dicitur quidem bonus secundum quid, scilicet inquantum est ens et inquantum est homo, non tamen bonus simpliciter, sed magis malus. Non igitur cuilibet creaturarum idem est esse et bonum esse simpliciter: licet quaelibet earum bona sit inquantum est. Deo vero simpliciter idem est esse et esse bonum.
<td>[7] So, it is evident from what has been said that, though God has His own perfect and complete goodness, in accord with His simple existing being, creatures do not attain the perfection of their goodness through their being alone, but through many things. Hence, although any one of them is good in so far as it exists, it cannot be called good, without qualification, if it lack any other things required for its goodness. Thus, a man who is destitute of virtue and host to vices is indeed called good, relatively speaking; that is, to the extent that be is a being, and a man. However, in the absolute sense, he is not good, but evil. So, it is not the same thing for any creature to be and to be good without qualification, although each of them is good in so far as it exists. In God, however, to be and to be good are simply the same thing.
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<td>Si autem res quaelibet tendit in divinae bonitatis similitudinem sicut in finem; divinae autem bonitati assimilatur aliquid quantum ad omnia quae ad propriam pertinent bonitatem; bonitas autem rei non solum in esse suo consistit, sed in omnibus aliis quae ad suam perfectionem requiruntur, ut ostensum est: manifestum est quod res ordinantur in Deum sicut in finem non solum secundum esse substantiale, sed etiam secundum ea quae ei accidunt pertinentia ad perfectionem; et etiam secundum propriam operationem, quae etiam pertinet ad perfectionem rei.
<td>[8] So, if each thing tends toward a likeness of divine goodness as its end, and if each thing becomes like the divine goodness in respect of all the things that belong to its proper goodness, then the goodness of the thing consists not only in its mere being, but in all the things needed for its perfection, as we have shown. It is obvious, then, that things are ordered to God as an end, not merely according to their substantial act of being, but also according to those items which are added as pertinent to perfection, and even according to the proper operation which also belongs to the thing’s perfection.
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<hr></a> <a name="21" id="21">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 21<br>
Quod res intendunt naturaliter assimilari Deo in hoc quod est causa</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 21<br>
THAT THINGS NATURALLY TEND TO BECOME LIKE GOD INASMUCH AS HE IS A CAUSE</b>
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<td>Ex his autem apparet quod res intendunt divinam similitudinem etiam in hoc quod sunt causae aliorum.
<td>[1] As a result, it is evident that things also tend toward the divine likeness by the fact that they are the cause of other things.
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<td>Tendit enim in divinam similitudinem res creata per suam operationem. Per suam autem operationem una res fit causa alterius. Ergo in hoc etiam res intendunt divinam similitudinem, ut sint aliis causae.
<td>[2] In fact, a created thing tends toward the divine likeness through its operation. Now, through its operation, one thing becomes the cause of another. Therefore, in this way, also, do things tend toward the divine likeness, in that they are the causes of other things.
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<td>Adhuc. Res tendunt in divinam similitudinem inquantum est bonus, ut supra dictum est. Ex bonitate autem Dei est quod aliis esse largitur: unumquodque enim agit inquantum est actu perfectum. Desiderant igitur generaliter res in hoc Deo assimilari, ut sint aliorum causae.
<td>[3] Again, things tend toward the divine likeness inasmuch as He is good, as we said above. Now, it is as a result of the goodness of God that He confers being on all things, for a being acts by virtue of the fact that it is actually perfect. So, things generally desire to become like God in this respect, by being the causes of other things.
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<td>Amplius. Ordo ad bonum boni rationem habet, ut ex dictis est manifestum. Unumquodque autem per hoc quod est causa alterius, ordinatur ad bonum: bonum enim solum causatur per se, malum autem per accidens tantum, ut ostensum est. Esse igitur aliorum causa est bonum. Secundum autem quodlibet bonum ad quod aliquid tendit, intendit divinam similitudinem: cum quodlibet bonum creatum sit ex participatione divinae bonitatis. Intendunt igitur res divinam similitudinem in hoc quod sunt aliorum causae.
<td>[4] Besides, an orderly relation toward the good has the formal character of a good thing, as is clear from what we have said. Now, by the fact that it is the cause of another, a thing is ordered toward the good, for only the good is directly caused in itself; evil is merely caused accidentally, as we have shown. Therefore, to be the cause of other things is good. Now, a thing tends toward the divine likeness according to each good to which it inclines, since any created thing is good through participation in divine goodness. And so, things tend toward the divine likeness by the fact that they are causes of others.
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<td>Item. Eiusdem rationis est quod effectus tendat in similitudinem agentis, et quod agens assimilet sibi effectum: tendit enim effectus in finem in quem dirigitur ab agente. Agens autem intendit sibi assimilare patiens non solum quantum ad esse ipsius, sed etiam quantum ad causalitatem: sicut enim ab agente conferuntur effectui naturali principia per quae subsistat, ita principia per quae aliorum sit causa; sicut enim animal, dum generatur, accipit a generante virtutem nutritivam, ita etiam virtutem generativam. Effectus igitur tendit in similitudinem agentis non solum quantum ad speciem ipsius, sed etiam quantum ad hoc quod sit aliorum causa. Sic autem tendunt res in similitudinem Dei sicut effectus in similitudinem agentis, ut ostensum est. Intendunt igitur res naturaliter assimilari Deo in hoc quod sunt causae aliorum.
<td>[5] Moreover, it is for the same reason that the effect tends to the likeness of the agent, and that the agent makes the effect like to itself, for the effect tends toward the end to which it is directed by the agent. The agent tends to make the patient like the agent, not only in regard to its act of being, but also in regard to causality. For instance, just as the principles by which a natural agent subsists are conferred by the agent, so are the principles by which the effect is the cause of others. Thus, an animal receives from the generating agent, at the time of its generation, the nutritive power and also the generative power. So, the effect does tend to be like the agent, not only in its species, but also in this characteristic of being the cause of others. Now, things tend to the likeness of God in the same way that effects tend to the likeness of the agent, as we have shown. Therefore, things naturally tend to become like God by the fact that they are the causes of others.
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<td>Praeterea. Tunc maxime perfectum est unumquodque quando potest alterum sibi simile facere: illud enim perfecte lucet quod alia illuminare potest. Unumquodque autem tendens in suam perfectionem, tendit in divinam similitudinem. Per hoc igitur unumquodque tendit in divinam similitudinem, quod intendit aliorum causa esse.
<td>[6] Furthermore, everything is at its peak perfection when it is able to make another thing like itself; thus, a thing is a perfect source of light when it can enlighten other things. Now, everything tending to its own perfection tends toward the divine likeness. So, a thing tends to the divine likeness by tending to be the cause of other things.
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<td>Quia vero causa, inquantum huiusmodi, superior est causato, manifestum est quod tendere in divinam similitudinem per hunc modum ut sit aliorum causa, est superiorum in entibus.
<td>[7] And since a cause, as such, is superior to the thing caused, it is evident that to tend toward the divine likeness in the manner of something that causes others is appropriate to higher types of beings.
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<td>Item. Prius est unumquodque in se perfectum quam possit alterum causare, ut iam dictum est. Haec igitur perfectio ultimo accidit rei, ut aliorum causa existat. Cum igitur per multa tendat res creata in divinam similitudinem, hoc ultimum ei restat, ut divinam similitudinem quaerat per hoc quod sit aliorum causa. Unde Dionysius dicit, III cap. caelestis hierarchiae, quod omnium divinius est Dei cooperatorem fieri: secundum quod apostolus dicit, I Corinth. 3-9: Dei adiutores sumus.
<td>[8] Again, a thing must first be perfect in itself before it can cause another thing, as we have said already. So, this final perfection comes to a thing in order that it may exist as the cause of others. Therefore, since a created thing tends to the divine likeness in many ways, this one whereby it seeks the divine likeness by being the cause of others takes the ultimate place. Hence Dionysius says, in the third chapter of On the Celestial Hierarchy, that “of all things, it is more divine to become a co-worker with God”; in accord with the statement of the Apostle: “we are God’s coadjutors” (1 Cor, 3:9)
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<hr></a> <a name="22" id="22">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 22<br>
Quomodo diversimode res ordinantur in suos fines</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 22<br>
HOW THINGS ARE ORDERED TO THEIR ENDS IN VARIOUS WAYS</b>
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<td>Ex praemissis autem manifestum esse potest quod ultimum per quod res unaquaeque ordinatur ad finem, est eius operatio: diversimode tamen, secundum diversitatem operationis.
<td>[1] It can be shown from the foregoing that the last thing through which any real being is ordered to its end is its operation. Yet this is done in various ways, depending on the diversity of operations.
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<td>Nam quaedam operatio est rei ut aliud moventis, sicut calefacere et secare. Quaedam vero est operatio rei ut ab alio motae, sicut calefieri et secari. Quaedam vero operatio est perfectio operantis actu existentis in aliud transmutandum non tendens: quorum primo differunt a passione et motu; secundo vero, ab actione transmutativa exterioris materiae. Huiusmodi autem operatio est sicut intelligere, sentire et velle. Unde manifestum est quod ea quae moventur vel operantur tantum, sine hoc quod moveant vel faciant, tendunt in divinam similitudinem quantum ad hoc quod sint in seipsis perfecta; quae vero faciunt et movent, inquantum huiusmodi, tendunt in divinam similitudinem in hoc quod sint aliorum causae; quae vero per hoc quod moventur movent, intendunt divinam similitudinem quantum ad utrumque.
<td>[2] One kind of operation pertains to a thing as the mover of another, as in the actions of heating or sawing. Another is the operation of a thing that is moved by another, as in the case of being heated or being sawed. Still another operation is the perfection of an actually existing agent which does not tend to produce a change in another thing. And these last differ, first of all, from passion and motion, and secondly from action transitively productive of change in exterior matter. Examples of operations in this third sense are understanding, sensing, and willing. Hence, it is clear that the things which are moved, or passively worked on only, without actively moving or doing anything, tend to the divine likeness by being perfected within themselves; while the things that actively make and move, by virtue of their character, tend toward the divine likeness by being the causes of others. Finally, the things that move as a result of being moved tend toward the divine likeness in both ways.
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<td>Corpora autem inferiora, secundum quod moventur motibus naturalibus, considerantur ut mota tantum, non autem ut moventia, nisi per accidens: accidit enim lapidi quod, descendens, aliquod obvians impellat. Et similiter est in alteratione et aliis motibus. Unde finis motus eorum est ut consequantur divinam similitudinem quantum ad hoc quod sint in seipsis perfecta, utpote habentia propriam formam et proprium ubi.
<td>[3] Lower bodies, inasmuch as they are moved in their natural motions, are considered as moved things only, and not as movers, except in the accidental sense, for it may happen that a falling stone will put in motion a thing that gets in its way. And the same applies to alteration and the other kinds of change. Hence, the end of their motion is to achieve the divine likeness by being perfected in themselves; for instance, by possessing their proper form and being in their proper place.
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<td>Corpora vero caelestia movent mota. Unde finis motus eorum est consequi divinam similitudinem quantum ad utrumque. Quantum quidem ad propriam perfectionem, inquantum corpus caeleste sit in aliquo ubi in actu in quo prius erat in potentia. Nec propter hoc minus suam perfectionem consequitur, quamvis ad ubi in quo prius erat actu, remaneat in potentia. Similiter enim et materia prima in suam perfectionem tendit per hoc quod acquirit in actu formam quam prius habebat in potentia, licet et aliam habere desinat quam prius actu habebat: sic enim successive materia omnes formas suscipit ad quas est in potentia, ut tota eius potentia reducatur in actum successive, quod simul fieri non poterat. Unde, cum corpus caeleste sit in potentia ad ubi sicut materia prima ad formam, perfectionem suam consequitur per hoc quod eius potentia tota ad ubi reducitur in actum successive, quod simul non poterat fieri.
<td>[4] On the other hand, celestial bodies move because they are moved. Hence, the end of their motion is to attain the divine likeness in both ways. In regard to the way which involves its own perfection, the celestial body comes to be in a certain place actually, to which place it was previously in potency. Nor does it achieve its perfection any less because it now stands in potency to the place in which it was previously. For, in the same way, prime matter tends toward its perfection by actually acquiring a form to which it was previously in. potency, even though it then ceases to have the other form which it actually possessed before, for this is the way that matter may receive in succession all the forms to which it is potential, so that its entire potentiality may be successively reduced to act, which could not be done all at once. Hence, since a celestial body is in potency to place in the same way that prime matter is to form, it achieves its perfection through the fact that its entire potency to place is successively reduced to act, which could not be done all at once.
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<td>Inquantum vero movendo movent, est finis motus eorum consequi divinam similitudinem in hoc quod sint causae aliorum. Sunt autem aliorum causae per hoc quod causant generationem et corruptionem et alios motus in istis inferioribus. Motus igitur corporum caelestium, inquantum movent, ordinantur ad generationem et corruptionem quae est in istis inferioribus. Non est autem inconveniens quod corpora caelestia moveant ad generationem horum inferiorum, quamvis haec inferiora corpora sint caelestibus corporibus indigniora, cum tamen finem oporteat esse potiorem eo quod est ad finem.
<td>[5] In regard to the way which involves movers that actively move, the end of their motion is to attain the divine likeness by being the causes of others. Now, they are the causes of others by the fact that they cause generation and corruption and other changes in these lower things. So, the motions of the celestial bodies, as actively moving, are ordered to the generation and corruption which take Place in these lower bodies.—Nor is it unfitting that celestial bodies should move for the sake of the generation and corruption of these lower things, even though lower bodies are of less value than celestial bodies, while, of course, the end should be more important than what is for the sake of the end.
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<td>Generans enim agit ad formam generati: cum tamen generatum non sit dignius generante, sed in agentibus univocis sit eiusdem speciei cum ipso. Intendit enim generans formam generati, quae est generationis finis, non quasi ultimum finem: sed similitudinem esse divini in perpetuatione speciei, et in diffusione bonitatis suae, per hoc quod aliis formam speciei suae tradit, et aliorum sit causa. Similiter autem corpora caelestia, licet sint digniora inferioribus corporibus, tamen intendunt generationem eorum, et formas generatorum in actum educere per suos motus, non quasi ultimum finem: sed per hoc ad divinam similitudinem intendentes quasi ad ultimum finem, in hoc quod causae aliorum existant.
<td>Indeed, the generating agent acts for the sake of the form of the product of generation, yet this product is not more valuable than the agent; rather, in the case of univocal agents it is of the same species as the agent. In fact, the generating agent intends as its ultimate end, not the form of the product generated, which is the end of the process of generation, but the likeness of divine being in the perpetuation of the species and in the diffusion of its goodness, through the act of handing on its specific form to others, and of being the cause of others. Similarly, then, celestial bodies, although they are of greater value than lower bodies, tend toward the generation of these latter, and through their motions to the actual eduction of the forms of the products of generation, not as an ultimate end but as thereby intending the divine likeness as an ultimate end, inasmuch as they exist as the causes of other things.
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<td>Considerandum autem quod unumquodque, inquantum participat similitudinem divinae bonitatis, quae est obiectum voluntatis eius, intantum participat de similitudine divinae voluntatis, per quam res producuntur in esse et conservantur. Superiora autem divinae bonitatis similitudinem participant simplicius et universalius: inferiora vero particularius et magis divisim. Unde et inter corpora caelestia et inferiora non attenditur similitudo secundum aequiparantiam, sicut in his quae sunt unius speciei: sed sicut universalis agentis ad particularem effectum. Sicut igitur agentis particularis in istis inferioribus intentio contrahitur ad bonum huius speciei vel illius, ita intentio corporis caelestis fertur ad bonum commune substantiae corporalis, quae per generationem conservatur et multiplicatur et augetur.
<td>[6] Now, we should keep in mind that a thing participates in the likeness of the divine will, through which things are brought into being and preserved, to the extent that it participates in the likeness of divine goodness which is the object of His will. Higher things participate more simply and more universally in the likeness of divine goodness, while lower things do so more particularly and more in detail. Hence, between celestial and lower bodies the likeness is not observed according to complete equivalence, as it is in the case of things of one kind. Rather, it is like the similarity of a universal agent to a particular effect. Therefore, just as in the order of lower bodies the intention of a particular agent is focused on the good of this species or that, so is the intention of a celestial body directed to the common good of corporeal substance which is preserved, and multiplied, and increased through generation.
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<td>Cum vero, ut dictum est, quaelibet res mota, inquantum movetur, tendat in divinam similitudinem ut sit in se perfecta; perfectum autem sit unumquodque inquantum fit actu: oportet quod intentio cuiuslibet in potentia existentis sit ut per motum tendat in actum. Quanto igitur aliquis actus est posterior et magis perfectus, tanto principalius in ipsum appetitus materiae fertur. Unde oportet quod in ultimum et perfectissimum actum quem materia consequi potest, tendat appetitus materiae quo appetit formam, sicut in ultimum finem generationis. In actibus autem formarum gradus quidam inveniuntur. Nam materia prima est in potentia primo ad formam elementi. Sub forma vero elementi existens est in potentia ad formam mixti: propter quod elementa sunt materia mixti. Sub forma autem mixti considerata, est in potentia ad animam vegetabilem: nam talis corporis anima actus est. Itemque anima vegetabilis est potentia ad sensitivam; sensitiva vero ad intellectivam. Quod processus generationis ostendit: primo enim in generatione est fetus vivens vita plantae, postmodum vero vita animalis, demum vero vita hominis. Post hanc autem formam non invenitur in generabilibus et corruptibilibus posterior forma et dignior. Ultimus igitur finis generationis totius est anima humana, et in hanc tendit materia sicut in ultimam formam. Sunt ergo elementa propter corpora mixta; haec vero propter viventia; in quibus plantae sunt propter animalia; animalia vero propter hominem. Homo igitur est finis totius generationis.
<td>[7] As we said, since any moved thing, inasmuch as it is moved, tends to the divine likeness so that it may be perfected in itself, and since a thing is perfect in so far as it is actualized, the intention of everything existing in potency must be to tend through motion toward actuality. And so, the more posterior and more perfect an act is, the more fundamentally is the inclination of matter directed toward it. Hence. in regard to the last and most perfect act that matter can attain, the inclination of matter whereby it desires form must be inclined as toward the ultimate end of generation. Now, among the acts pertaining to forms, certain gradations are found. Thus, prime matter is in potency, first of all, to the form of an element. When it is existing under the form of an element it is in potency to the form of a mixed body; that is why the elements are matter for the mixed body. Considered under the form of a mixed body, it is in potency to a vegetative soul, for this sort of soul is the act of a body. In turn, the vegetative soul is in potency to a sensitive soul, and a sensitive one to an intellectual one. This the process of generation shows: at the start of generation there is the embryo living with plant life, later with animal life, and finally with human life. After this last type of form, no later and more noble form is found in the order of generable and corruptible things. Therefore, the ultimate end of the whole process of generation is the human soul, and matter tends toward it as toward an ultimate form. So, elements exist for the sake of mixed bodies; these latter exist for the sake of living bodies, among which plants exist for animals, and animals for men. Therefore, man is the end of the whole order of generation.
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<td>Quia vero per eadem res generatur et conservatur in esse, secundum ordinem praemissum in generationibus rerum est etiam ordo in conservationibus earundem. Unde videmus quod corpora mixta sustentantur per elementorum congruas qualitates: plantae vero ex mixtis corporibus nutriuntur; animalia ex plantis nutrimentum habent; et quaedam etiam perfectiora et virtuosiora ex quibusdam imperfectioribus et infirmioribus. Homo vero utitur omnium rerum generibus ad sui utilitatem. Quibusdam quidem ad esum, quibusdam vero ad vestitum: unde et a natura nudus est institutus, utpote potens ex aliis sibi vestitum praeparare; sicut etiam nullum sibi congruum nutrimentum natura praeparavit nisi lac, ut ex diversis rebus sibi cibum conquireret. Quibusdam vero ad vehiculum: nam in motus celeritate, et in fortitudine ad sustinendos labores, multis animalibus infirmior invenitur, quasi aliis animalibus ad auxilium sibi praeparatis. Et super hoc omnibus sensibilibus utitur ad intellectualis cognitionis perfectionem. Unde et de homine in Psalmo dicitur, ad Deum directo sermone: omnia subiecisti sub pedibus eius. Et Aristoteles dicit, in I politicorum, quod homo habet naturale dominium super omnia animalia.
<td>[8] And since a thing is generated and preserved in being by the same reality, there is also an order in the preservation of things, which parallels the foregoing order of generation. Thus we see that mixed bodies are sustained by the appropriate qualities of the elements; Plants, in turn, are nourished by mixed bodies; animals get their nourishment from plants: so, those that are more perfect and more powerful from those that are more imperfect and weaker. In fact, man uses all kinds of things for his own advantage: some for food, others for clothing. That is why he was created nude by nature, since he is able to make clothes for, himself from other things; just as nature also provided him with no appropriate nourishment, except milk, because he can obtain food for himself from a variety of things. Other things he uses for transportation, since we find man the inferior of many animals in quickness of movement, and in the strength to do work; other animals being provided, as it were, for his assistance. And, in addition to this, man uses all sense objects for the perfection of intellectual knowledge. Hence it is said of man in the Psalms (8:8) in a statement directed to God: “You have subjected all things under his feet,” And Aristotle says, in the <i>Politics</i> I [5: 1254b 9], that man has natural dominion over all animals.
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<td>Si igitur motio ipsius caeli ordinatur ad generationem; generatio autem tota ordinatur ad hominem sicut in ultimum finem huius generis: manifestum est quod finis motionis caeli ordinatur ad hominem sicut in ultimum finem in genere generabilium et mobilium.
<td>[9] So, if the motion of the heavens is ordered to generation, and if the whole of generation is ordered to man as a last end within this genus, it is clear that the end of celestial motion is ordered to man, as to an ultimate end in the genus of generable and mobile beings.
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<td>Hinc est quod Deuteron. 4-19, dicitur quod Deus corpora caelestia fecit in ministerium cunctis gentibus.
<td>Hence the statement in Deuteronomy (4:19) that God made celestial bodies “for the service of all peoples”.
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<hr></a> <a name="23" id="23">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 23<br>
Quod motus caeli est a principio intellectivo</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 23<br>
THAT THE MOTION OF THE HEAVENS COMES FROM AN INTELLECTUAL PRINCIPLE</b>
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<td>Ex praemissis etiam ostendi potest primum motivum motus caeli esse aliquid intellectivum.
<td>[1] From the preceding we can also show that the prime motive principle of the heavens is something intellectual.
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<td>Nihil enim secundum propriam speciem agens intendit formam altiorem sua forma; intendit enim omne agens sibi simile. Corpus autem caeleste, secundum quod agit per motum suum, intendit ultimam formam, quae est intellectus humanus, quae quidem est altior omni corporali forma, ut ex praemissis patet. Corpus igitur caeli non agit ad generationem secundum propriam speciem, sicut agens principale, sed secundum speciem alicuius superioris agentis intellectualis, ad quod se habet corpus caeleste sicut instrumentum ad agens principale. Agit autem caelum ad generationem secundum quod movetur. Movetur igitur corpus caeleste ab aliqua intellectuali substantia.
<td>[2] Nothing that acts in function of its own species intends a form higher than its own form, for every agent tends toward its like. Now, a celestial body, acting under its own motion, tends toward the ultimate form, which is the human intellect; and which is, in fact, higher than any bodily form, as is clear from the foregoing. Therefore, a celestial body does not act for a generation according to its own species as a principal agent, but according to the species of a higher intellectual agent, to which the celestial body is related as an instrument to a principal agent. Now, the heavens act for the purpose of generation in accord with the way in which they are moved. So, a celestial body is moved by some intellectual substance.
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<td>Adhuc. Omne quod movetur, necesse est ab alio moveri, ut superius probatum est. Corpus igitur caeli ab alio movetur. Aut ergo illud aliud est omnino separatum ab eo: aut est ei unitum, ita quod compositum ex caelo et movente dicatur movere seipsum, inquantum una pars eius est movens et alia mota. Si autem sic est; omne autem movens seipsum est vivum et animatum: sequitur quod caelum sit animatum. Non autem alia anima quam intellectuali: non enim nutritiva, cum in eo non sit generatio et corruptio; neque sensitiva, cum non habeat organorum diversitatem. Sequitur ergo quod moveatur ab anima intellectiva. Si autem movetur a motore extrinseco, aut illud erit corporeum, aut incorporeum. Et si quidem corporeum, non movet nisi motum: nullum enim corpus movet nisi motum, ut ex superioribus patet. Oportebit ergo et illud ab alio moveri. Cum autem non sit procedere in infinitum in corporibus, oportebit devenire ad primum movens incorporeum. Quod autem est penitus a corpore separatum, oportet esse intellectuale, ut ex superioribus patet. Motus igitur caeli, quod est primum corporeum, est ab intellectuali substantia.
<td>[3] Again, everything that is moved must be moved by another being, as we proved earlier. Therefore, a celestial body is moved by something else. So, this other thing is either completely separated from it, or is united with it in the sense that the composite of the celestial body and the mover may be said to move itself, in so far as one of its parts is the mover and another part is the thing moved. Now, if it works this way, since everything that moves itself is alive and animated, it would follow that the heavens are animated, and by no other soul than an intellectual one: not by a nutritive soul, for generation and corruption are not within its power; nor by a sensitive soul, for a celestial body has no diversity of organs. The conclusion is, then, that it is moved by an intellective soul.—On the other hand, if it is moved by an extrinsic mover, this latter will be either corporeal or incorporeal. Now, if it is corporeal, it will not move unless it is moved, for no body moves unless it is moved, as was evident previously. Therefore, it will also have to be moved by another. And since there should be no process to infinity in the order of bodies, we will have to come to an incorporeal first mover. Now, that which is utterly separate from body must be intellectual, as is evident from earlier considerations. Therefore, the motion of the heavens, that is of the first body, comes from an intellectual substance.
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<td>Item. Corpora gravia et levia moventur a generante et removente prohibens, ut probatur in VIII physicorum: non enim potest esse quod forma in eis sit movens et materia mota, nihil enim movetur nisi corpus. Sicut autem elementorum corpora sunt simplicia, et non est in eis compositio nisi materiae et formae, ita et corpora caelestia sunt simplicia. Si igitur moventur sicut gravia et levia, oportet quod moveantur a generante per se, et a removente prohibens per accidens. Hoc autem est impossibile: nam illa corpora ingenerabilia sunt, utpote non habentia contrarietatem; et motus eorum impediri non possunt. Oportet igitur quod moveantur illa corpora a moventibus per apprehensionem. Non autem sensitivam, ut ostensum est. Ergo intellectivam.
<td>[4] Besides, heavy and light bodies are moved by their generating agent, and by that which takes away any impediment to motion, as was proved in <i>Physics</i> VIII [4: 256a 1]. For it cannot be that the form in them is the mover, and the matter the thing moved, since nothing is moved unless it be a body. Now, just as the elemental bodies are simple and there is no composition in them, except of matter and form, so also are the celestial bodies simple. And so, if they are moved in the same way as heavy and light bodies, they must be moved directly by their generating agent, and accidentally by the agent which removes an impediment to motion. But this is impossible, for these bodies are not capable of generation: for they are not endowed with contrariety, and their motions cannot, be impeded. So, these bodies must be moved by movers that function through knowing; not through sensitive knowledge, as we showed, but through intellectual knowledge.
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<td>Amplius. Si principium motus caeli est sola natura, absque apprehensione aliqua, oportet quod principium motus caeli sit forma caelestis corporis, sicut et in elementis: licet enim formae simplices non sint moventes, sunt tamen principia motuum, ad eas enim consequuntur motus naturales, sicut et omnes aliae naturales proprietates. Non autem potest esse quod motus caelestis sequatur formam caelestis corporis sicut principium activum. Sic enim forma est principium motus localis, inquantum alicui corpori, secundum suam formam, debetur aliquis locus, in quem movetur ex vi suae formae tendentis in locum illum, quam quia dat generans, dicitur esse motor: sicut igni secundum suam formam competit esse sursum. Corpori autem caelesti, secundum suam formam, non magis congruit unum ubi quam aliud. Non igitur motus caelestis principium est sola natura. Oportet igitur quod principium motus eius sit aliquid per apprehensionem movens.
<td>[5] Moreover, if the principle of celestial motion is simply a nature lacking any type of apprehension, then the principle of celestial motion must be the form of a celestial body, just as is the case in the elements. For, although simple forms are not movers, they are nonetheless the principles of motions, since natural motions are resultant from them, as are all other natural properties. Now, it is impossible for celestial motion to result from the form of a celestial body, as from an active principle. A form is the principle of local motion in the same way that a certain place is proper to a body by virtue of its form; it is moved to this place by the force of its form tending to it, and, since the generating agent gives the form, it is said to be the mover. For instance, it is appropriate to fire, by virtue of its form, to be in a higher place. But one place is no more appropriate than another for a celestial body, according to its form. Therefore, the principle of celestial motion is not simply the nature of the body. So, the principle of its motion must be something that moves as a result of apprehension.
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<td>Adhuc. Natura semper ad unum tendit: unde quae sunt a natura, semper sunt eodem modo, nisi impediantur; quod est in paucioribus. Quod igitur ex sui ratione habet difformitatem, impossibile est quod sit finis in quem tendit natura. Motus autem secundum rationem suam est huiusmodi: quod enim movetur, inquantum huiusmodi, dissimiliter se habet et nunc et prius. Impossibile est igitur quod natura intendat motum propter seipsum. Intendit igitur quietem per motum, quae se habet ad motum sicut unum ad multa: quiescit enim quod similiter se habet nunc et prius. Si igitur motus caeli sit a natura tantum, esset ordinatus in aliquam quietem. Cuius contrarium apparet: cum sit continuus. Non est igitur motus caeli a natura sicut a principio activo, sed magis a substantia intelligente.
<td>[6] Furthermore, nature always tends toward one objective; hence, things which result from nature always occur in the same way, unless they are interfered with, and this happens to few of them. Indeed, that which has a deformity within its very definition cannot be an end to which a nature tends. Now, motion, by definition, is of this type, for whatever is moved, by virtue of that fact, is in a different condition before and after.” So, it is impossible for a nature to tend toward motion for the sake of motion. Therefore, it tends through motion toward rest, and the latter is related to motion as one to many. Indeed, a thing at rest is one which is in the same condition before and after. If then, the motion of the heavens were simply from a nature, it would be ordered to some condition of rest. But the contrary of this is apparent, for celestial motion is continuous. Therefore, the motion of the heavens does not arise from a nature, as its active principle, but rather from an intelligent substance.
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<td>Item. Omni motui qui est a natura sicut a principio activo, oportet quod, si accessus ad aliquid est naturalis, quod recessus ab eodem sit innaturalis et contra naturam: sicut grave accedit deorsum naturaliter, recedit autem inde contra naturam. Si igitur motus caeli esset naturalis, cum tendat ad occidentem naturaliter, contra naturam ab occidente recedens in orientem rediret. Hoc autem est impossibile: in motu enim caelesti nihil est violentum et contra naturam. Impossibile est igitur quod principium activum motus caelestis sit natura. Est igitur principium activum eius aliqua vis apprehensiva, et per intellectum, ut ex praedictis patet. Movetur igitur corpus caeleste a substantia intellectuali.
<td>[7] Again, for every motion that is from a nature, as an active principle, if its approach to something be natural, then its removal from that objective must be unnatural and against nature. Thus, a heavy thing naturally moves downward, but for it to move in the opposite direction is against nature. Therefore, if the motion of the heavens were natural, since it tends westward naturally, it would return to the east in the manner of a thing that recedes from the west by a motion against nature. Now, this is impossible. In celestial motion there is nothing violent and against nature. So, it is impossible for the active principle of celestial motion to be a nature. Therefore, its active principle is some apprehensive power, and through understanding, as is clear from what was said earlier. So, a celestial body is moved by an intellectual substance.
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<td>Non tamen est negandum motum caelestem esse naturalem. Dicitur enim esse motus aliquis naturalis, non solum propter activum principium, sed etiam propter passivum: sicut patet in generatione simplicium corporum. Quae quidem non potest dici naturalis ratione principii activi: movetur enim id naturaliter a principio activo cuius principium activum est intra, natura enim est principium motus in eo in quo est; principium autem activum in generatione simplicis corporis est extra. Non est igitur naturalis ratione principii activi, sed solum ratione principii passivi, quod est materia, cui inest naturalis appetitus ad formam naturalem. Sic ergo motus caelestis corporis, quantum ad activum principium, non est naturalis, sed magis voluntarius et intellectualis: quantum vero ad principium passivum est naturalis, nam corpus caeleste habet naturalem aptitudinem ad talem motum.
<td>[8] Yet we must not deny that celestial motion is natural. In fact, a motion is called natural, not simply because of its active principle, but also because of its passive one. This is exemplified in the generation of simple bodies. Indeed, this generation cannot be called natural by reason of the active principle, for that is moved naturally by an active principle, which has its active principle within it; “a nature is a principle of motion in that to which it belongs.” But the active principle in the generation of a simple body is outside. So, it is not natural by reason of the active principle, but only by reason of the passive principle, which is the matter in which the natural appetite for a natural form is present. And so, the motion of a celestial body, as far as its active principle is concerned, is not natural, but voluntary and intellectual; however, in relation to its passive principle, the motion is natural, for a celestial body has a natural aptitude for such motion.
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<td>Hoc autem manifeste apparet si habitudo consideretur caelestis corporis ad suum ubi. Patitur enim et movetur unumquodque secundum quod est in potentia, agit vero et movet secundum quod est actu. Corpus autem caeleste, secundum suam substantiam consideratum, invenitur ut in potentia indifferenter se habens ad quodlibet ubi, sicut materia prima ad quamlibet formam, sicut praedictum est. Aliter autem est de corpore gravi et levi, quod, in sua natura consideratum, non est indifferens ad omnem locum, sed ex ratione suae formae determinatur sibi locus. Natura igitur corporis gravis et levis est principium activum motus eius: natura vero corporis caelestis est motus ipsius passivum principium. Unde non debet alicui videri quod violenter moveatur, sicut corpora gravia et levia, quae a nobis moventur per intellectum. Corporibus enim gravibus et levibus inest naturalis aptitudo ad contrarium motum ei quo moventur a nobis, et ideo a nobis moventur per violentiam: licet motus corporis animalis, quo movetur ab anima, non sit ei violentus inquantum est animatum, etsi sit ei violentus inquantum est grave quoddam. Corpora autem caelestia non habent aptitudinem ad motum contrarium, sed ad illum quo moventur a substantia intelligente. Unde simul est voluntarius, quantum ad principium activum; et naturalis, quantum ad principium passivum.
<td>[9] This becomes clearly evident when we consider the relation of a celestial body to its location. A thing is acted on passively, and is moved, in so far as it is in potency; while it acts and moves, in so far as it is in act. Now, a celestial body, considered in its substance, is found to be indifferently related to every place, just as prime matter is to every form, as we said before. Of course, it is a different situation in the case of a heavy or light body which, considered in its nature, is not indifferent to every place, but is determined by virtue of its form to a place of its own. So, the nature of a heavy or light body is the active principle of its motion, while the nature of a celestial body is the passive principle of its motion. Hence, no one should get the impression that the latter is moved violently, as is the case with heavy and light bodies that are moved by us through understanding. For there is present in heavy and light bodies a natural aptitude for motion contrary to that in which they are moved by us, and so they are moved by us through violence. However, the motion of an animated body, in which it is moved by a soul, is not violent for it as an animal, though it is violent for it as a heavy object. Celestial bodies have no aptitude for contrary motion, but only for that whereby they are moved by an intelligent substance. Consequently, it is at once voluntary, in relation to the active principle, and natural, in relation to the passive principle.
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<td>Quod autem motus caeli est voluntarius secundum activum principium, non repugnat unitati et conformitati caelestis motus, ex hoc quod voluntas ad multa se habet, et non est determinata ad unum. Quia sicut natura determinatur ad unum per suam virtutem, ita voluntas determinatur ad unum per suam sapientiam, qua voluntas dirigitur infallibiliter ad unum finem.
<td>[10] That the motion of the heavens is voluntary according to its active principle is not repugnant to the unity and uniformity of celestial motion because of the fact that the will is open to a plurality of actions and is not determined to one of them. In fact, just as a nature is determined to one objective by its power, so is the will determined to one objective by its wisdom, whereby the will is infallibly directed to one end.
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<td>Patet etiam ex praemissis quod in motu caelesti non est contra naturam neque accessus ad aliquod ubi, neque recessus ab eo. Hoc enim accidit in motu gravium et levium propter duo: primo quidem, quia intentio naturae est determinata in gravibus et levibus ad unum locum, unde, sicut naturaliter tendit in ipsum, ita contra naturam recedit ab eo. Secundo, quia duo motus quorum unus accedit ad terminum, et alter recedit, sunt contrarii. Si autem accipiatur in motu gravium et levium non ultimus locus, sed medius, sicut ad ipsum acceditur naturaliter, ita ab ipso naturaliter receditur: quia totum stat sub una intentione naturae; et non sunt motus contrarii, sed unus et continuus. Ita autem est in motu caelestium corporum: quia naturae intentio non est ad aliquod ubi determinatum, ut iam dictum est; motus etiam quo recedit corpus circulariter motum ab aliquo signo, non est contrarius motui quo illuc accedit, sed est unus motus et continuus. Unde quodlibet ubi in motu caeli est sicut medium, et non sicut extremum in motu recto.
<td>[11] It is also evident from the foregoing that in celestial motion neither the approach to a certain place, nor the regression from that place, is against nature. Such a thing does occur in the motion of heavy and light bodies for two reasons. First, because the natural tendency in heavy and light things is determined to one place; hence, just as such a body naturally tends to this place, so does it go against nature in receding from it. Second, because two motions, one approaching a term and the other receding from it, are contrary. But, if we take into consideration in this motion of heavy and light bodies, not the final place but an intermediate one, then just as an approach may naturally be made to it, so also may a recession be naturally made from it. For the whole motion comes under one natural tendency, and these motions are not contrary but one and continuous.—So, too, is the situation in the motion of celestial bodies, for the tendency of their nature is not toward some determinate place, as has been said already. Also, the motion whereby a body moves in a circle, away from a point of reference, is not contrary to the motion whereby it approaches the point, but it is one continuous motion. Hence, each place in the motion of the heavens is like a middle point, and not like a terminal point in straight-line motion.
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<td>Non differt autem, quantum ad praesentem intentionem, utrum corpus caeleste moveatur a substantia intellectuali coniuncta, quae sit anima eius, vel a substantia separata; et utrum unumquodque corporum caelestium moveatur a Deo immediate, vel nullum, sed mediantibus substantiis intellectualibus creatis; aut primum tantum immediate a Deo, alia vero mediantibus substantiis creatis; dummodo habeatur quod motus caelestis est a substantia intellectuali.
<td>[12] Nor does it make any difference, as far as our present purpose is concerned, whether a heavenly body is moved by a conjoined intellectual substance which is its soul, or by a separate substance; nor whether each celestial body is moved immediately by God, or whether none is so moved, because all are moved through intermediary, created, intellectual substances; nor whether the first body alone is immediately moved by God, and the others through the mediation of created substances—provided it is granted that celestial motion comes from intellectual substance.
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<hr></a> <a name="24" id="24">
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<td align="center"><b>Caput 24<br>
Quomodo appetunt bonum etiam quae cognitione carent</b>
<td align="center"><b>Chapter 24<br>
HOW EVEN BEINGS DEVOID OF KNOWLEDGE SEEK THE GOOD</b>
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<td>Si autem corpus caeleste a substantia intellectuali movetur, ut ostensum est; motus autem corporis caelestis ordinatur ad generationem in inferioribus: necesse est quod generationes et motus istorum inferiorum procedant ex intentione substantiae intelligentis. In idem enim fertur intentio principalis agentis, et instrumenti. Caelum autem est causa inferiorum motuum secundum suum motum, quo movetur a substantia intellectuali. Sequitur ergo quod sit sicut instrumentum intellectualis substantiae. Sunt igitur formae et motus inferiorum corporum a substantia intellectuali causatae et intentae sicut a principali agente, a corpore vero caelesti sicut ab instrumento.
<td>[1] Now, if a celestial body is moved by intellectual substance, as we have shown, and if the motion of a celestial body is ordered to generation in the realm of things here below, it must be that the processes of generation and the motions of these lower things start from the intention of an intelligent substance. For the intention of the principal agent and that of the instrument are directed toward the same thing. Now, the heavens is the cause of the movements of inferior bodies, by virtue of its own motion in which it is moved by an intellectual substance. It follows, then, that the heavenly body is like an instrument for intellectual substance. Therefore, the forms and movements of lower bodies are caused by intellectual substance which intends them as a principal agent, while the celestial body is like an instrument.
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